Vietnam War: The Defeat of the United States and Its Abandonment of South Viet Nam

 

ARVN rangers in action

         

The Viet Nam War is a military struggle fought from 1959 to 1975. The World War II brought about the occupation of Viet Nam by the Japanese forces. After the war, the French wanted to regain its former colonial territories in Indo China that included Viet Nam. The communist forces however, under Ho Chi Minh wanted the country to become independent. The opposing interest of the French and the communist nationalist led by Ho Chi Minh resulted to an armed conflict. The North Vietnamese forces under the leadership of Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap routed the French and captured its remaining soldiers after a 55-day siege at Dien Bien Phu. As a result, France agreed to withdraw all its forces in Viet Nam at the Geneva Conference of 1954.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   In the aftermath of the conflict under the conference Viet Nam was partitioned at the 17^th parallel on May 8, 1954, and a reunification election of the country was to be held in 1956. The north under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh allied itself with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) and China. The South under the leadership of Ngo Dinh Diem allied itself with the United States and the west. Ho Chi Minh and the League for the Independence of Viet Nam wanted a unified country along the USSR-China ideological line. Diem on the other hand opposed reunification believing that the people of the north had no freedom to choose if election was held. In South Viet Nam there was an underground armed group called the National Liberation Front (NLF) also known as the Viet Cong.  The NLF which shared and supported the north’s aspiration engaged South Viet Nam’s army, the ARVN, in its bid to topple the southern government from within using guerilla tactics. The political instability in the south and the in-fighting of its leaders made the south highly vulnerable of being defeated by the north.

US Intervention and Escalation of the War

US marines in Vietnam

ARVN soldiers in action

A police chief executes a Vietcong in the street

To prevent the south from falling into the hands of the communists, the United States sent military advisers to assist the ARVN deal with the threats posed by North Viet Nam and the Viet Cong. In 1961 two helicopter companies composed of 400 soldiers arrived.  In 1962 the US soldiers’ strength stood at 11,200. Before the end of 1965 US combat strength was almost 200,000 and reached its highest peak in 1968 at 525,000. During the early stage of US involvement troops from Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Thailand and the Philippines augmented the US and ARVN forces. The allied forces were commanded by Gen William Westmoreland.   

A young US marine

                                                                  

In the south the war became a people’s war with guerilla fighters not easily distinguishable from non-combatants and most civilians were mobilized into some sort of active participation. There were no recognizable front lines, and the Viet Cong employed highly effective hit and run tactics against the US forces and their allies. The war resulted in heavy casualties on both sides but majority of them were civilians.  Heavy aerial bombings were conducted by US planes to the north as well as in the Ho Chi Min Trail that was inside Laos and Cambodia where the communist transported their military supplies from the north into South Viet Nam.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               The most notable battle in the conflict was the Tet Offensive of the communists which they coincided with the celebration of the Vietnamese Lunar New Year, hence its name. The communist forces launched a coordinated and massive simultaneous attack against 100 urban targets inside South Viet Nam.  The US forces and the ARVN however were able to thwart the attack and defeated the communist assault and sent the enemies back to their former positions. In that attack the communists lost about 85,000 of their best troops.

A wounded US soldier assisted by his comrades

Media Coverage and Anti-War Demonstrations in the Streets Fanned Out Anti-War Sentiment

Victims of MY Lai massacre

The Viet Nam war was a war that was highly covered by the media. The long drawn armed conflict, the reports of atrocities, the huge casualties suffered by the US troops and the huge cost of prosecuting the war which stood at 25 billion dollars per year had created negative sentiment of the war on the American public overtime. Media reports highlighted atrocities committed by US forces while those of the communists were either ignored or not reported at all. The way in which the war was portrayed by the media played into the hands of the communists. The report of the My Lai Massacre in 1968 on which a platoon led by Lt. William Calley killed unarmed villagers composed of elderly men, women and children further put the conduct of the war in negative light.

The Kissinger Peace Deal: Setting the Stage for Communist Victory

Operation in Hue 1967

North Vietnamese troops during Tet Offensive

President Richard M. Nixon ordered continuous aerial bombings in the north to destroy its economic and military infrastructures and to bring the enemy to the negotiating table. But the communists remained adamant. Determined to reach a peace settlement with North Vietnam and put an end to the war, President Richard Nixon sent Henry Kissinger as his emissary to broker a peace deal with the communists in Paris. Kissinger’s communist counterpart was Le Dhuc Tho. Meanwhile, the US continued its bombing runs to make the communists agree with the peace deal. When a peace talk collapsed in December 16, 1972, Nixon ordered massive bombings of Hanoi and Haiphong by B-52s and other planes. On January 27, 1973, in Paris delegation from US, South Vietnam, North Viet Nam and the provisional revolutionary government signed agreement of ending the war and restoring peace. Among the conditions of the Peace accord were: complete cessation of hostilities, withdrawal of all US and allied forces from South Viet Nam within 60 days after the signing, return of POWs on both sides at 15-day intervals within 60 days, recognition of the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) as provisional not a political or territorial boundary, creation of international control commission  composed of Canada, Hungary, Indonesia and Poland to oversee implementation of the peace accord, and a provision for an international conference to be held within 30 days. The accord allowed some 145,000 North Vietnamese troops to remain in South Vietnam, but with limitation on their future replacement and supplies. South Viet Nam under President Nguyen Van Thieu viewed the peace deal with apprehension. He considered it as a sellout to the communists. However, since his country was totally dependent to the United States for support, he nevertheless signed it. By the end of March 1973 all US troops were withdrawn from South Viet Nam.                                                                              

Henry Kissinger along with Le Dhuc Tho was nominated for the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for bringing about peace in Viet Nam. But only Kissinger was awarded because Le Dhuc Tho refused to receive the prize stating that lasting peace was yet to be attained. Tho might have correctly thought that larger battles loomed ahead beyond that peace deal.                                                                                                                   

Vietnamization and the Abandonment of an Ally

The process of turning over the burden of military operations and security of South Viet Nam to the indigenous Vietnamese allies was called Vietnamization. In that process the United States would continue giving financial and material support to South Viet Nam after the US forces had left. Nixon hinted that America would come to the aid of South Viet Nam if the communists violated the terms of the treaty.                                                                                                                                                                               

The Vietnamization of the war did not bode well to the fledgling South Vietnamese government. The complete withdrawal of the US troops affected the economy because the country derived most of its income from the spending of American troops. The Yom Kippur War of 1973, which sent the price of oil to an unprecedented highest level also adversely affected its economy as well as its military capability. The high cost of oil made it more expensive for the country to use the planes, tanks and other equipment that were left behind by the US military.

The changing political landscape in the United States sealed the fate of South Viet Nam in its war against its Northern brother and neighbor. The anti-war sentiment in America was heightened by the continuous demonstrations in the streets against the war. Nixon resigned amidst the Watergate Scandal. Replacing him was Gerald Ford another republican. The mid-term election of 1974 saw majority of democrats winning the upper and lower houses of congress. The Democratic controlled congress made a resolution to phase out war funding. It was to be decreased in 1975 and to be cut off in 1976. And there was the Case-Church Amendment in June 1974 which prohibited US intervention in case of re-escalation of the war. The politicians virtually drove the final nail in the coffin as far as fate of the war in Viet Nam was concerned.

Violation of the Peace Treaty and the Victory of the Communists

When the American troops were gone the communist forces started to violate the peace deal that was made with Henry Kissinger. The North Vietnamese forces and the Viet Cong started to attack South Vietnamese positions. It seemed that all conditions set forth in the peace treaty were violated except the complete withdrawal of the US forces. In December 1974 North Vietnamese forces attacked route 14 in Phuc Long province. It fell on January 6, 1975. The South Vietnamese made a last-ditch effort to ask help from the United States. President Ford tried to answer the South Vietnamese call for help before they would be completely overrun, but his hands were tied by congress, and no help to an ally was forthcoming. On April 30, 1975, Saigon, the capital, was captured and the republic of Viet Nam surrendered unconditionally to the communist controlled provisional government.  At the end of 1975 the war had become a rout.

The defeat of the United States and the fall of Viet Nam came with a heavy price. It cost 57,685 Americans killed and 153,303 wounded with a financial cost of about 140 billion US dollars which is equivalent to 686 billion of today’s US dollars. On the side of the South Vietnamese there were estimated 2 million killed and 3 million wounded with hundreds of thousands orphaned. There were also 12 million Indo-Chinese people who became refugees because of the war. On the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong there were estimated 1,176,000 killed and over 600,000 wounded.

 

 

The Top American Field Commanders in the Vietnam War

 

                                                     General William Childs Westmoreland                        

The Military Assistance Command, Viet Nam (MACV) was created on February 8, 1962, to have a unified command over all American units during the Viet Nam War. The mission of the MACV was to assist  South Viet Nam maintain internal security against subversion and insurgency and to repel attack from North Vietnam. The Commanding General of the MACV was the highest-ranking US military officer in Viet Nam during the war. He was responsible for the overall conduct of military operations inside South Viet Nam and other areas of interest that included North Viet Nam, Laos, and Cambodia. It was disbanded on March 29, 1973, after the signing of the Paris Peace Accord and the withdrawal of the American forces from South Viet Nam. Following are four successions of American generals who commanded the MACV:

General Paul Donal Harkins (1962-1964) He was born in Massachusetts, USA on May 15, 1904. A graduate of US Military Academy at West Point in 1929, General Harkins was the first commander of the Military Assistance command, Viet Nam when it was organized in 1962. One of his significant assignments was his being Deputy Chief of Staff of General George Patton during WW2. General Harkins also served the US forces during the Korean War in the early 50’s. The initial US troops build up in the Viet Nam War occurred during his watch. When General Harkins left Viet Nam, there were around 11,000 to 16,000 US troops there. General Harkins died on August 21, 1984.

                                                        Photo credit: Herbert Abrams

General William Childs Westmoreland (1964-1968) Also called as “Westy” in the military circle, General Westmoreland was born on March 26, 1914, in Spartanburg, South Carolina. He graduated with distinction at the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1936 receiving the award of First Captain which was the highest graduating rank and the Pershing Sword which was given to the most able cadet. At 42 Westy was the youngest American officer ever to be promoted as major general. As a lieutenant he served in the artillery and during the Second World War he saw action in Sicily, France and Germany and served as the commander of the 187^th Regimental Combat Team during the Korean War. He was assigned as the superintendent of the United States Military Academy and the commander of the XVll Airborne Corps in 1963. He then became the deputy commander of General Paul D. Harkins at MACV and assumed full command of it in 1964. When Westmoreland took over the command the US forces had only about 16,000 troops. His stint as Commander of all US forces saw massive build up of American troops. When he was relieved of his post at MACV the US forces strength stood at 535,000. Westmoreland during his term used the conventional military strategies like search-and-destroy and the war of attrition to deal with the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese forces. The war of attrition called for the deployment of large units with superior firepower using artillery and air support to destroy the enemy. The communist on the other hand countered Westy’s strategy by using hit-and-run tactics and by avoiding larger US and South Vietnamese units. Westmoreland was the commander of all American forces when the communists launched their Tet Offensive on which they attacked simultaneously about one hundred urban targets inside South Vietnam. Although the US and South Vietnamese forces defeated the communists attack and inflicted thousands of casualties on them, the American public started to doubt its country’s ability to win the war. The huge cost, the high number of casualties and the negative publicities of the war had slowly but surely eroded American public support for it. After his assignment in Viet Nam, Westmoreland returned to Washington to become the Chief of Staff of the United States Army. He retired in 1972. He ran for Governor in California in 1974 under the Republican Party, but he lost in the election. General Westmoreland died on July 18, 2005.

General Creighton Williams Abrams Jr. (1968-1972) He was born on September 15, 1914, in Springfield, Massachusetts.  General Abrams was a classmate of Westmoreland in West Point Class of 1936. He served with the 1^st cavalry Division from 1936 to 1940. In July 1942 to March 1943, he was a battalion commander, and then a regimental executive officer from March 1943 to September 1943 with the US Armor Regiment.  General Abrams was promoted to general in 1964 and appointed as Vice Chief of Staff of the army. In 1968 he replaced Westmoreland as the Commanding General of MACV. Abrams’ stint saw the drastic reduction of the US forces due to “Vietnamization” policy of the Richard Nixon’s administration in 1969. From a high of 535,000 during the term of Westmoreland, it was trimmed down to 49,000 at the end of Abrams’ term. Abrams used a strategy that was different from his predecessor’s. He broke the large US units to small ones whose members lived with the villagers to train them and to help them ward off enemy infiltrations and attacks. He put more emphasis on winning the people’s hearts and minds in the conflict affected areas believing that the people’s trust and confidence in the US forces and its ally were significant factor in winning the war. In 1972 Abrams was relieved of his command at MACV and elevated to the position of Chief of Staff of the US Army. He died of lung cancer while in office. The US main battle tank M1 Abrams was named after him.

General Frederick Carlton Weyand (1972-1973) He was born on September 15, 1916, in Arbuckle, California. General Weyand was a graduate of the ROTC program. As a young officer he was assigned with the 6^th field artillery.  One of his significant positions included an assignment as commander of the 25^th Division, stationed in Hawaii. That unit was introduced to Viet Nam with him as commander in 1965 and 1966. In 1970 he became the deputy commander of the MACV and in June 1972 was the commander after Gen. Creighton Abrams became the Chief of Staff of the United States Army. Conducting the US policy of “Vietnamization” of the war, General Weyand oversaw the withdrawal of the US military forces from South Viet Nam. After the disbandment of MACV in March 1973, he was assigned as Commander-in-Chief US Army, Pacific in 1973 and as Vice Chief of Staff of the US Army in 1973 and 1974. He finally made it as Chief of Staff of the US Army on October 3, 1974. He retired from the service on October 1, 1976. After his retirement he settled in Hawaii and died there on February 10, 2010.

 

 

 

Idioms for Halloween

Idioms are expressions whose meaning is different from the suggested words which compose them. They are used in our oral or written communication.  Following are selected English idioms for the Halloween season. Their meanings may not relate to the Halloween, but most of the accompanying nouns or adjectives are figures that are associated with this particular season.

                                                         

Bat

As blind as a bat- it is said that bat has poor sight, and it cannot see during daylight. It is also said to a person with poor eyesight. “Ever since his surgery he has become as blind as a bat. He can hardly read a letter."

Dead

Come to a dead end- to come to an absolute stopping point. “He drove his car to a road that led to a dead end.”

In a dead heat- a race where two or more contestants reach the finish line exactly at the same time. “The two runners finish the race in a dead heat.”

In the dead of the night- means in the middle of the night. “Burglars usually strike in the dead of the night.”

Devil

Between the devil and the deep blue sea- one is in a dilemma. “He can’t make decision whether to accept the job offer or not. He is caught between the devil and the deep blue sea.”                                                                       

Give the devil his due- however bad a person is he should be given credit for any good quality or achievement that he may have. “The sergeant major is very harsh when it comes to discipline, but to give the devil his due; he always attends to his soldiers’ need.”

Speak of the devil- to speak about a person when suddenly he appears. “Tom always keeps us waiting. He doesn’t seem to honor his commitment. Shall we go? …speaking of the devil, here he comes. “

There will be devil to pay- there will be lots of troubles. “If you go against the wishes of your boss there will be devil to pay.”

Ghost

A ghost employee- a fictitious name in the roster of employees or a person listed as a member of an entity when he is not. “Dishonest finance personnel padded the payroll with ghost employees.”

A ghost town- is a place that is abandoned by its populace. “My-Lai became a ghost town after the massacre took place.”

A ghost writer- is one who writes on someone else’s behalf, but keeps his identity secret. “Since Jane has no talent in writing, she should hire a ghost writer to write her story on her travel to Singapore.”

Only a ghost of one’s former self- to lose much weight, vitality, strength among others after sickness or health related situation. “She is only a ghost of her former self after last month’s accident.”

Grave

To digs one’s grave- means to do self destructive activities. “He’s digging his own grave by not having good relationship with his boss. Sooner or later, he is going to lose his job.”

To turn over in one’s grave- If a dead person were alive, he would be shocked or horrified. “If grandpa knew what you were doing with his properties he would turn over in his grave.”

Hell

All hell broke loose- bad things will happen or there will be troubles- “If you don’t make good your promise to marry her, then all hell will break loose.”

Come hell or high water- whatever the difficulties. “Come hell or high water, I’ll become a lawyer.”

Magic spell

Black magic- an evil magic connected with the Devil. “His uncanny ability to turn a leaf into paper money is a black magic.”

Break a spell- to escape from the influence of someone. “His indifference to her feelings has broken the spell he has over her.”

Fall under someone’s spell- to be fascinated with someone. “Tom isn’t so handsome, but the beautiful young girl falls under his spell.”

Skeleton

Skeleton in one’s closet- is an embarrassing or shocking secret. “The boss is afraid to fire his secretary because she knows the skeletons in his closet.”

Skeleton staff/crew- is an undermanned staff. “The recession has forced my boss to work with a skeleton staff.”

Soul

Soul mate- is someone who has the same characteristics as another person so that both of them are compatible with each other. “Tom and Jean can get along with each other well. They are really soul mates.”

Soul searching- consulting one’s conscience so that he will be able to decide on what to do of a pressing matter. “‘Should I leave my wife?’ Tom said to himself. It was a soul-searching experience for him.”

Spirit

Dampen one’s spirit- to discourage a good mood.  “She wants to go shopping, but the heavy traffic dampens her spirit.”

The moving spirit- is the originator of an idea. “Mr. Jones is the moving spirit behind the new school policies.”

The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak- an instance when a person cannot resist the demand of his body even if he wants to. “I would like to exercise early in the morning but could not. The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak.”

To spirit away-is to remove something in a secret way. “I wonder who spirited away one of my favorite books from the shelf.”

Witch

A witch-hunt- is the searching out of someone with different views or harmful ideas in a manner that is sometimes unfair. “The political profiling of people or the curtailment of rights of those who are perceived to have dangerous ideas is a witch-hunt.”

White witch- is a woman who practices positive magic by casting spell or using herbal plants to heal someone. “I don’t think a witch comes in color so that we can call her a white witch or a black witch. A witch is always a witch.”