The French Revolution and the End of the French Monarchy

 

In the late 18^th century, the loans provided by France to the US colonies during the American Revolution and the excessive cost of the privilege given to the noble and clergies and corruption caused the country financial difficulties and heavy indebtedness. The burden of taxation which was passed mostly to the lower class worsened the poverty of the people and fueled more discontent and hatred towards the government. The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the example of the American Revolution made the people especially the peasantry receptive to radical ideas to change the status quo and improve their living condition.

To deal with the social and economic problems, King Louis XVI appointed Robert Jacques Turgot as comptroller general who then instituted strict economy in government expenditures. The latter’s action did not find favor to Queen Marie Antoinette and the nobility. Using their influence, they made the king removed him from office.

The move by the king only exacerbated the problem so that he appointed another comptroller general who was Jacques Necker who also followed the policies of his predecessor. Both the king and Necker agreed that the Estates-General, which was in adjournment for a long time had to be convoked to address the mounting unrest and discontent of the people. The Estates-General was composed of three estates. The first estate was the clergy, the second estate was the nobility, and the third estate was the commoners. Necker convinced the king that the third estate would have the same number of representatives as that of the first estate and the second estate combined. 

On May 5, 1789, the Estates-General convened. The third estate, the majority caucus, wanted individual voting and majority rule in the proceedings. The proposal was opposed by the first and second estates. And as a result, there was a deadlock. 

In defiance, the third estate, the insurgent caucus, proclaimed itself as the National Assembly and made resolution vesting itself with the sole power to legislate taxation. The king responded by denying the National Assembly the use of its session hall. Upon the instigation of the Comte d’ Artois and queen Marie Antoinette, Jacques Necker was removed from his position. The king also issued orders for the concentration of several loyal foreign regiments in Paris and Versailles. 

Open insurrections and rioting in Paris followed because of the king’s actions. Rebellious acts by the people also took place all over France. On July 14, 1789, the insurrectionists stormed and captured the Bastille, a prison that symbolized the despotism of the royalty. In panic, the prominent reactionaries as well as the comte d’ artois fled from the country.

The Paris bourgeoisie afraid that the lower classes would take advantage of the situation hastily established a provisional local government and organized a people militia that would be designated as the National Guard throughout France. It was placed under the command of Marquis de Lafayette, a hero of the American Revolution.

The king accepted the measures taken by the provisional authorities, and reinstated Necker. On June 27, 1789, the king, in a move to restore harmony, ordered the refractory clergy and the nobility to join the unicameral assembly which later called itself the Constituent National Assembly. 

On August 4, 1789, the clergy and the nobility renounced their privileges during the night session of the Constituent National Assembly. These were the abolition of feudal and manorial prerogatives, the prohibition and sale of public office, the rights of the Catholic Church to levy taxes and exemption from taxation and other privileges...

While a new constitution was drafted by the Constituent National Assembly, there was a report that the royal family held a grand banquet at Versailles. This angered the hungry people of Paris. As a result, a large body of Parisians mostly women marched to the palace. King Louis and his family were rounded up but they were rescued by Lafayette, who, on demand of the crowd, escorted the royal family to Paris. 

The king approved the first draft of the constitution on July 14, 1790, with elaborate ceremonies in Paris. In its preamble was the Declaration of Rights of man and of the Citizen which included equality before the law, trial by jury and other democratic provisions. But by the institution of the property qualification of the vote, the constitution confined the electorates to the middle and upper classes. The constitution that was drafted was also set to limit and control the power of the king, to clip the power of the clergies and to divest them of their vast holdings. 

Despite acquiescence of the king to give in to the desire of the people, there were suspicions that he and his wife were in constant secret communications with the other monarchies of Europe to undermine the revolutionary government. And another reason for the suspicion was that Queen Marie Antoinette was a sister of King Leopold II, the Holy Roman Emperor. The people’s suspicion was confirmed when King Louis XVI and his wife were caught on June 21, 1791, at Varennes while trying to escape to another country. 

On July 17, 1791, the republicans in Paris took to the street and demanded that the king be deposed. But on order of Marquis de Lafayette, the National Guards opened fire and dispersed the crowd. The bloodshed further widened the divide between the royalists and the radicals. 

After suspending the king for a brief period, the Constituent National Assembly re-instated him to his office. He took the oath to support the revised constitution on September 14, 1791. Two weeks later with the election of new members of the Legislative Assembly authorized by the constitution, the Constituent National Assembly was dissolved. The Legislative Assembly began its session on October 1, 1791, with 750 members. They were grouped as the Feuillants who were royalists, the Plains who were the majority of the caucus but had no defined opinion or programs, and the Republicans who were for a representative government. The Republicans were grouped as Girondists and Montagnards. The Girondists espoused for federal republican government patterned after that of the United States. The Montagnards who were composed of the Jacobins and the Cordeliers espoused for a centralized and indivisible republic. The Montagnards were the most radical members of the Legislative Assembly.                                            

Meanwhile, King Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued a joint declaration against France which threatened an armed intervention against the revolutionary government.

Later, the Girondists gained power in the Legislative Assembly, and it adopted belligerent attitude toward Francis II, who succeeded his father Leopold II as the Holy Roman emperor and to Frederick William II.  On April 20, 1792, the Legislative Assembly declared war on the Austrian part of the Holy Roman Empire. That declaration started a series of conflict known as the French Revolutionary War.

The European monarchies attacked Paris. They also issued threat to the effect that if the King and his family were harmed, they would destroy the city. The invasion only sparked the nationalist fervor of the people and made them more radical. The Legislative Assembly’s call for volunteers all over France to defend Paris was met willing cooperation by the people. The volunteers stormed Tuileries, the residence of the royal family. When contingent from Marseilles arrived, they sang the patriotic song “Marseilles”. The volunteers were able to overrun the King’s Swiss guards and massacred them. King Louis and his family were captured while hiding near the hall of the Legislative Assembly. The insurrectionists deposed the governing council and replaced it with a new provisional executive council. The Montagnards dominated the new Parisian council and swiftly controlled the Legislative Assembly. It approved election by universal male suffrage and a new constitutional convention. After the invaders were repulsed about 1,000 royalists and suspected traitors were rounded up and summarily executed. 

On September 20, 1792, the newly elected National Constitutional Convention convened in Paris. It proclaimed the establishment of the First Republic of France and formally abolished the monarchy.

The execution of King Louis XVI

Some of the convention’s first moves were to approve the resolutions initiated by the Montagnards to try King Louis for treason. It also approved a resolution that the country would extend help to other peoples of Europe in fighting oppression, a move that in effect would export the ideals of the French Revolution across Europe through armed struggle. King Louis XVI was found guilty during the trial and was sent to guillotine on January 21, 1793.

 

Gaston Park

  

Gaston Park is a tree covered recreational area situated right at the heart of Cagayan de Oro and is one of the landmarks of the city. It sits on the ground near other landmarks such as the Saint Augustine Metropolitan Cathedral, the city hall, the city museum which is also the old water tower, the Ysalina Bridge and the Cagayan River.

The historic park is named after Segundo Gaston who was the mayor of Cagayan de Misamis, the former name of the city, from 1916 to 1919. Its location was the site of early Spanish-led native settlement, and the training ground of Filipino warriors during the Philippine-American War. It was also there where a battle on April 7, 1900, between the Filipino, led by Gen. Nicolas Capistrano, and American forces took place. In the year 2000, a marker was erected to commemorate that historic event.

Medium-sized trees of different varieties adorn the area of the circular shaped park. Among the trees are Cherry Blossoms which were donated by the Japanese. The trees with their lush green leaves and flowers give a sense of eco-friendly environment in and around the park.  

    

                                                                                                               

The fountain with pool, which is one of the park’s attractions, forms a concentric circle within the park. The circular park is divided into sections with the fountain at the center. The edge of the park is surrounded by trees and pairs of tree planted islands serve as boundaries of the sections. In between the pairs of islands are walkways. The tops on both sides of each island double as benches for visitors. The park’s floor is covered with adobe like pavements. Other attractions include Typhoon Sendong Memorial which gives a glimpse of the devastation caused by the event in December 2011, and the list of the people who perished in the tragedy.

 

People of all walks of life visit the park. The shade of the trees shelters them from the blistering heat of the sun during sunny days. Some people hang around there to relax; others stay there to meet or gather with friends. Still others go there to take pictures of themselves, friends and loved ones. Students who are off their class spend their time practicing dancing or doing other activities. The park is a place to stroll around alone or with friends, and, to some lovers, a dating rendezvous. Because of its proximity to the Catholic cathedral, the park is a convenient hangout for faithful coming to and going from the mass. 

                     

        

                                                   

During fiesta and other occasions, the park is a place where small businesspeople can display their goods to sell to visitors. The goods for sale include decorative plants, vegetables, fruits, foods, and souvenir items.

Santa Claus, the Iconic Figure of Christmas

                                      

Christmas is the time of the year when people spend much money on food and gifts to enjoy the holiday season. Their spending spree boosts economic activities with businesses having their busiest and most lucrative month of the year. People going to shopping malls are buoyed up with Christmas music and other treats that encourage them to buy things. During Christmas there is one figure that people are remarkably familiar with. He is Santa Claus. The Santa Claus is an inanimate object or a person dressed as such.

The history of Santa Claus can be traced to Saint Nicholas who lived in the fourth century in Lycia. Saint Nicholas, the patron saint of Russia, was born in Patara, a city in the ancient district of Lycia, Asia Minor which is now in Türkiye. Nicholas belonged to a wealthy family. He abandoned that status to follow the footstep of Jesus Christ. He became an archbishop of the church in Myra, Lycia and was reported to have been in the first Council of Nicaea. He died on December 6, 343 A.D. in Myra. His remains were later brought by Italian merchants to Bari in Italy. His tomb has since then become a shrine.

Saint Nicholas

Legend has it that there were three poor girls in the place where St. Nicholas lived. The girl’s father could not afford a dowry for their weddings. During that time, it was the woman’s family who would provide dowry to a man to wed his daughters off. The more the amount of the dowry, the greater was the opportunity for the woman to have a better husband. No dowry meant that his three daughters were in danger to be sold to slavery. It was said that on three separate occasions a bag of gold was tossed through the window and landed in shoes or stockings that were hung by the fire. The bags of gold enabled the father to pay for the dowries of his daughters thus averting their misfortune.  This legend projected an image of St. Nicholas as a gift giver. Saint Nicholas is the patron saint of children, scholars, virgins, sailors, and merchants.  December 6 is his feast day. The eve of his festivity was celebrated by secretly giving gifts.                                                                                        

The discovery of the vast American continent by the Europeans also brought about the introduction of European customs and culture to the New World. The Dutch emigrants who settled in New York brought the tradition of gift giving on the feast of St. Nicholas who was introduced as Sinter Klaas. The feast days of Saint Nicholas and Christmas Eve are just close to each other. For this reason, the practice of gift giving on separate occasions for both festivities was made to be done only once. And the gifts are to be given on Christmas Eve.

 A shift from the traditional and Saintly St. Nicholas into an elfin figure was made in the poem written in 1882 which was attributed to Clement Clark Moore. It was entitled A Visit from Saint Nicholas.  In it he depicted St Nicholas as a pipe-smoking jolly fat man riding on sleigh that was drawn by flying reindeers. He came down to chimneys to distribute gifts. The names of the reindeer were Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Donner, and Blitzen.  Later, one was added (Rudolph) courtesy of the song Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer. American cartoonist Thomas Nast made a drawing of Santa based on descriptions from the poem.  He portrayed Santa as a rotund, white-bearded man who was covered with sooth. He had twinkling eyes, berry-like nose, merry dimples, rose cheeks, bow-like mouth, and broad face and round belly. He was clad in fur and carried on his back a bag stuffed with toys.

Later the image of Santa Claus has further evolved into a man wearing attire that is all in red, and the name Saint Nicholas has evolved into Santa Claus.  The celebration of Christmas has crossed continents and cultures. It has become a secular tradition that is celebrated the world over. Indeed, the children will be hanging their stockings or shoes on the wall or Christmas tree on Christmas Eve expecting that Santa Claus will stuff them with toys. And Parents should not let them down.

 

 

Why the Philippines Needs Anti-Political Dynasty Law

 

                             

“The state shall guarantee equal access to opportunities for public service, and prohibits political dynasties as maybe defined by law,” says Section 26, State Policies, 1987 Philippine Constitution. The congressmen and senators are therefore required to pass laws to implement that provision. However, after three decades they are yet to act on it. Instead of fading out, political dynasties have grown bigger, dominating the political landscape from Luzon to Mindanao. 

The country has had leaders from political families from the national to local levels since its independence from the United States. However, issues such as poverty, corruption, underdevelopment and others persist, and people think that their leaders or their political systems have failed them. It will be an exaggeration to say that political dynasties are the root cause of our problems, but certainly it is one of them. Eliminating one of the issues which is political dynasty is a step in the right direction to move this country forward.  It is imperative for the legislators to pass anti-political dynasty laws because: 1) They are mandated by the constitution to do it, 2) the people expected them to do their duty, and 3) the good of the people must prevail over their self-interest. Below are some more reasons to have an anti-political dynasty law:  

Political dynasties treat government offices like family business. The head of political dynasty is not content with having an elective position all alone. He wants to share the privilege with his family. This will result in a family with members holding multiple government positions all at the same time from the national down to local levels including the barangay. An example of dynasties monopolizing public office is the senate where there are four pairs of siblings who are senators which is equivalent to 1/3 of the total number of 24 senators in that chamber. 

Political dynasties undermine our electoral system. Most often, politicians from political families are among the rich in a community. They have the name, the money, and the political machineries for an election. Over time, long entrenched politicians who mostly belong to political families would learn the tricks of winning elections. These include vote buying and patronage politics such as giving ayudas which are aimed especially to lower income groups who comprised the largest percentage of voters. For these reasons, it is hard for a qualified and well-intentioned candidate to beat them. Candidates from dynasties always win elections because the playing field is not level on the side of their opponents.       

Political dynasties hijack the party list system- The party list system is introduced in the 1987 constitution to enable the underprivileged and underrepresented sectors to have a voice in congress. However, political families also intruded into the party list so that some of its representatives came from dynastic families. This creates a situation where two or more representatives come from just one family or clan. This situation has defeated the purpose of party list representation in congress. 

Political dynasties breed corruption. Long serving politicians such as senators and representatives who belong to political families have a say on government infrastructure projects under their jurisdiction. This will make them in contact with DPWH officials, other government agencies and private contractors involved in project implementation. Over time, their connections make them close to each other, and it’s highly likely that kickbacks and commissions will become a secret deal in their transactions. In the flood control investigation by congress in Bulacan and other parts of the country hundreds of billions of pesos are wasted through corruption. Most of those involved politicians came from dynastic families. It is not just enough to punish the culprits since people who will take their place might be as corrupt or more corrupt as the people they replace with. Fixing the system might be a better way to prevent the wrongdoings from persisting.

What can be done to check the growth of political dynasties:                                                                

Massive information campaigns should be conducted to educate the people about the negative effects of political dynasties. This can be done through the social or mainstream media and even through the ordinary people since nowadays information can be easily accessed with a cell phone. Church, civil society, schools, students and the youth particularly the millennials and Gen Z generations should be tapped for this endeavor. Their clamor will make the topic of anti-political dynasty an issue in the 2028 election which will make voters support anti-political dynasty candidates. If majority of them win, then a law could be passed in the next congress.

If above method fails, then a people’s initiative will be another remedy. People can make laws they want if the lawmakers are negligent or unwilling to perform their mandate. The initiative needs the verified signatures of 10% of total number of registered voters in the Philippines, with at least 3% of total number of verified registered voters for each legislative districts.

The last resort is a constitutional convention. This time there will be delegates who will deliberate not only on political dynasty but also on other matters of importance. There will be amendments or changes to the 1987 Constitution as the delegates may deem appropriate under the circumstances.

 

The Legacies of the French Revolution to Our Democratic Principles

 

                        

The French revolution from 1789 to 1799 was one of the bloodiest in history which resulted to the abolition of the monarchy and the proclamation of the French Republic. The provisional rulers of the revolutionary government proved to be more despotic and brutal than the king they deposed. They executed the reactionaries, the political opposition and even turned against each other to settle their differences. As a result, thousands of people were summarily killed or executed with the infamous guillotine, the beheading machine that was associated with the bloody revolution. However, despite their radicalism and brutalities, the leaders of the revolution were highly committed to their cause to bring about social change, and they had the spirit of nationalism in them. Because of their ideals, most people supported them. The in-fighting of diverse groups within the revolutionary government made it unstable. The ineffectiveness of the civilian rulers to run the government led to a series of coup d’état that later made Napoleon Bonaparte, a military commander, as the ruler and dictator of France.                                                                        

Napoleon made wars with other European countries to export the ideals of the French Revolution. He was at first victorious. But later the combined forces of Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria finally defeated him at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. And the Bourbon monarchy was briefly restored to the throne by those victorious countries.                  

In France, the revolution resulted to the enactment of laws and adoption of systems that paved the way for the establishment of democratic government. Although France was not the first country to make those laws that expanded a person’s rights and freedom, its examples are the most influential in the world.

Following are some democratic principles that came about because of the French Revolution which are adopted by many countries of the world:

Constitutional government- is one that operates under a set of fundamental laws which is called a constitution.

Representative government- is one that is run by officials that are elected by the people. High government positions are not bestowed by reason of birth.

Merit-based civil service system- non-elective positions or jobs in the government are given to those who are most qualified and talented. It is not given by virtue of one’s birth or connections to the authorities.

Separation of church and state and the abolition of privileges of the clergy and the upper class- the clergy held immense power in pre-revolutionary France. The church had a strong influence over the king so that it could expect from him decisions and policies in its favor.  This resulted to the church having vast properties and the clergies along with the nobilities having so many privileges. The revolutionary government of France cut those influences and privileges and even confiscated the properties of the church. Separation of church and state is now the norm of many governments around the world.

Freedom of religion- no religion shall be considered as a state religion. People are free to believe in any religion of their choice, and they are not compelled to believe or not to believe in any religion.

Freedom of the press- is the right of those in the communication media to disseminate information that is of public interest. This freedom is one of the tools for transparency in government activities.

The Napoleonic Code- is a document that was written in the aftermath of the French Revolution. It embodies some of the democratic legal principles that are now adopted in the courts of justice of many countries, especially in the resolution of criminal cases. These principles include:

·       presumption of innocence until proven guilty

·       equality before the law

·       right to legal counsel

·       trial by jury in a criminal case

·       right of habeas corpus

·       provision for a fair trial

The French Revolution’s motto of “Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite” or  “Liberty, Equality, and Brotherhood” will always be a cherished ideals to our democracy.

 

 

Christmas Trees in the Philippines

 

                                                         

One of the traditions during the Christmas season is the setting up of Christmas trees in homes and public places. The practice originated in Europe and was brought to the Americas by European immigrants. The Philippines being a former colony of Spain and the United States has adopted to the western culture and traditions including the celebration of Christmas. Originally, the setting up of Christmas tree was practiced by Lutheran and protestant Christians. Although it was not a Catholic practice, Filipinos nevertheless adapted to it. 

                                 

In 1982, Pope John Paul II introduced the Christmas tree custom to the Vatican, and since then Christmas tree has become an integral part of Vatican Christmas celebration. In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI spoke of it as part of normal decoration in Catholic homes. The Popes declarations validated the Catholic faithful’s Christmas tree tradition.

When I was little, Christmas tree always decorated my family’s home during the Christmas season. My mother preferred to have a fresh cut natural pine tree to decorate on. It was adorned with different colored baubles, stars, tinsels, and paper ornaments. Christmas lights were added later as years went by.

In my elementary school it was customary for our classrooms to be decorated with Christmas tree during the yuletide seasons. Since pine trees were hard to come by, we went to swamp where mangrove trees abound. We then brought the tree to school and stripped it of its leaves. Its trunk, its branches and its twigs were then wrapped with green crepe paper, and adorned it with tinsels, baubles, cards, bells, and stars.

Over the years, the use of natural trees for Christmas decorations has gradually become out of fashion because of government policy of tree protection and the difficulty and hassle of cutting off trees and bringing them home. Taking their place are the artificial trees that are mostly imported from China. What is good about it is that they are easy to install and are recyclable for the next Christmas season. Some even come with decorations already on them.

Christmas trees are also displayed in public places such as big malls and other establishments. In SM Downtown and SM Uptown mega malls in Cagayan de Oro giant artificial trees with elaborate adornments and lightings are a sight to delight with. These decorations give ambience of a joyful Yuletide season inside the malls.

Although some Christian sects consider Christmas tree as pagan in origin, some denominations including the Catholic consider the Christmas tree as compatible to Christian tradition. For them, the green tree represents the tree of life which is the full eternal life that God wishes to lavish on humanity. The lighted candles which were replaced by electric Christmas lights today are the shining lights of Jesus. The star on the top of the tree symbolizes the star of Bethlehem, and the angel represents the Angel Gabriel.

 

Related posts:

Parol, a Traditional Philippine Christmas Decoration https://lapasan-myblognoel145.blogspot.com/2014/12/parol-traditional-philippine-christmas.html

The 13 Round Fruits and Other New Year’s Eve Customs in the Philippines https://lapasan-myblognoel145.blogspot.com/2013/12/the-13-round-fruits-and-other-new-years.html

Vietnam War: The Defeat of the United States and Its Abandonment of South Viet Nam

 

ARVN rangers in action

         

The Viet Nam War is a military struggle fought from 1959 to 1975. The World War II brought about the occupation of Viet Nam by the Japanese forces. After the war, the French wanted to regain its former colonial territories in Indo China that included Viet Nam. The communist forces however, under Ho Chi Minh wanted the country to become independent. The opposing interest of the French and the communist nationalist led by Ho Chi Minh resulted to an armed conflict. The North Vietnamese forces under the leadership of Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap routed the French and captured its remaining soldiers after a 55-day siege at Dien Bien Phu. As a result, France agreed to withdraw all its forces in Viet Nam at the Geneva Conference of 1954.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   In the aftermath of the conflict under the conference Viet Nam was partitioned at the 17^th parallel on May 8, 1954, and a reunification election of the country was to be held in 1956. The north under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh allied itself with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) and China. The South under the leadership of Ngo Dinh Diem allied itself with the United States and the west. Ho Chi Minh and the League for the Independence of Viet Nam wanted a unified country along the USSR-China ideological line. Diem on the other hand opposed reunification believing that the people of the north had no freedom to choose if election was held. In South Viet Nam there was an underground armed group called the National Liberation Front (NLF) also known as the Viet Cong.  The NLF which shared and supported the north’s aspiration engaged South Viet Nam’s army, the ARVN, in its bid to topple the southern government from within using guerilla tactics. The political instability in the south and the in-fighting of its leaders made the south highly vulnerable of being defeated by the north.

US Intervention and Escalation of the War

US marines in Vietnam

ARVN soldiers in action

A police chief executes a Vietcong in the street

To prevent the south from falling into the hands of the communists, the United States sent military advisers to assist the ARVN deal with the threats posed by North Viet Nam and the Viet Cong. In 1961 two helicopter companies composed of 400 soldiers arrived.  In 1962 the US soldiers’ strength stood at 11,200. Before the end of 1965 US combat strength was almost 200,000 and reached its highest peak in 1968 at 525,000. During the early stage of US involvement troops from Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Thailand and the Philippines augmented the US and ARVN forces. The allied forces were commanded by Gen William Westmoreland.   

A young US marine

                                                                  

In the south the war became a people’s war with guerilla fighters not easily distinguishable from non-combatants and most civilians were mobilized into some sort of active participation. There were no recognizable front lines, and the Viet Cong employed highly effective hit and run tactics against the US forces and their allies. The war resulted in heavy casualties on both sides but majority of them were civilians.  Heavy aerial bombings were conducted by US planes to the north as well as in the Ho Chi Min Trail that was inside Laos and Cambodia where the communist transported their military supplies from the north into South Viet Nam.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               The most notable battle in the conflict was the Tet Offensive of the communists which they coincided with the celebration of the Vietnamese Lunar New Year, hence its name. The communist forces launched a coordinated and massive simultaneous attack against 100 urban targets inside South Viet Nam.  The US forces and the ARVN however were able to thwart the attack and defeated the communist assault and sent the enemies back to their former positions. In that attack the communists lost about 85,000 of their best troops.

A wounded US soldier assisted by his comrades

Media Coverage and Anti-War Demonstrations in the Streets Fanned Out Anti-War Sentiment

Victims of MY Lai massacre

The Viet Nam war was a war that was highly covered by the media. The long drawn armed conflict, the reports of atrocities, the huge casualties suffered by the US troops and the huge cost of prosecuting the war which stood at 25 billion dollars per year had created negative sentiment of the war on the American public overtime. Media reports highlighted atrocities committed by US forces while those of the communists were either ignored or not reported at all. The way in which the war was portrayed by the media played into the hands of the communists. The report of the My Lai Massacre in 1968 on which a platoon led by Lt. William Calley killed unarmed villagers composed of elderly men, women and children further put the conduct of the war in negative light.

The Kissinger Peace Deal: Setting the Stage for Communist Victory

Operation in Hue 1967

North Vietnamese troops during Tet Offensive

President Richard M. Nixon ordered continuous aerial bombings in the north to destroy its economic and military infrastructures and to bring the enemy to the negotiating table. But the communists remained adamant. Determined to reach a peace settlement with North Vietnam and put an end to the war, President Richard Nixon sent Henry Kissinger as his emissary to broker a peace deal with the communists in Paris. Kissinger’s communist counterpart was Le Dhuc Tho. Meanwhile, the US continued its bombing runs to make the communists agree with the peace deal. When a peace talk collapsed in December 16, 1972, Nixon ordered massive bombings of Hanoi and Haiphong by B-52s and other planes. On January 27, 1973, in Paris delegation from US, South Vietnam, North Viet Nam and the provisional revolutionary government signed agreement of ending the war and restoring peace. Among the conditions of the Peace accord were: complete cessation of hostilities, withdrawal of all US and allied forces from South Viet Nam within 60 days after the signing, return of POWs on both sides at 15-day intervals within 60 days, recognition of the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) as provisional not a political or territorial boundary, creation of international control commission  composed of Canada, Hungary, Indonesia and Poland to oversee implementation of the peace accord, and a provision for an international conference to be held within 30 days. The accord allowed some 145,000 North Vietnamese troops to remain in South Vietnam, but with limitation on their future replacement and supplies. South Viet Nam under President Nguyen Van Thieu viewed the peace deal with apprehension. He considered it as a sellout to the communists. However, since his country was totally dependent to the United States for support, he nevertheless signed it. By the end of March 1973 all US troops were withdrawn from South Viet Nam.                                                                              

Henry Kissinger along with Le Dhuc Tho was nominated for the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for bringing about peace in Viet Nam. But only Kissinger was awarded because Le Dhuc Tho refused to receive the prize stating that lasting peace was yet to be attained. Tho might have correctly thought that larger battles loomed ahead beyond that peace deal.                                                                                                                   

Vietnamization and the Abandonment of an Ally

The process of turning over the burden of military operations and security of South Viet Nam to the indigenous Vietnamese allies was called Vietnamization. In that process the United States would continue giving financial and material support to South Viet Nam after the US forces had left. Nixon hinted that America would come to the aid of South Viet Nam if the communists violated the terms of the treaty.                                                                                                                                                                               

The Vietnamization of the war did not bode well to the fledgling South Vietnamese government. The complete withdrawal of the US troops affected the economy because the country derived most of its income from the spending of American troops. The Yom Kippur War of 1973, which sent the price of oil to an unprecedented highest level also adversely affected its economy as well as its military capability. The high cost of oil made it more expensive for the country to use the planes, tanks and other equipment that were left behind by the US military.

The changing political landscape in the United States sealed the fate of South Viet Nam in its war against its Northern brother and neighbor. The anti-war sentiment in America was heightened by the continuous demonstrations in the streets against the war. Nixon resigned amidst the Watergate Scandal. Replacing him was Gerald Ford another republican. The mid-term election of 1974 saw majority of democrats winning the upper and lower houses of congress. The Democratic controlled congress made a resolution to phase out war funding. It was to be decreased in 1975 and to be cut off in 1976. And there was the Case-Church Amendment in June 1974 which prohibited US intervention in case of re-escalation of the war. The politicians virtually drove the final nail in the coffin as far as fate of the war in Viet Nam was concerned.

Violation of the Peace Treaty and the Victory of the Communists

When the American troops were gone the communist forces started to violate the peace deal that was made with Henry Kissinger. The North Vietnamese forces and the Viet Cong started to attack South Vietnamese positions. It seemed that all conditions set forth in the peace treaty were violated except the complete withdrawal of the US forces. In December 1974 North Vietnamese forces attacked route 14 in Phuc Long province. It fell on January 6, 1975. The South Vietnamese made a last-ditch effort to ask help from the United States. President Ford tried to answer the South Vietnamese call for help before they would be completely overrun, but his hands were tied by congress, and no help to an ally was forthcoming. On April 30, 1975, Saigon, the capital, was captured and the republic of Viet Nam surrendered unconditionally to the communist controlled provisional government.  At the end of 1975 the war had become a rout.

The defeat of the United States and the fall of Viet Nam came with a heavy price. It cost 57,685 Americans killed and 153,303 wounded with a financial cost of about 140 billion US dollars which is equivalent to 686 billion of today’s US dollars. On the side of the South Vietnamese there were estimated 2 million killed and 3 million wounded with hundreds of thousands orphaned. There were also 12 million Indo-Chinese people who became refugees because of the war. On the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong there were estimated 1,176,000 killed and over 600,000 wounded.

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