Marriage Practices of Major World Religions

 

Religion is a significant force that shapes the culture and traditions of societies around the world. Across cultures, marriage exists as a social institution through which families are formed, values are transmitted, and religious beliefs are expressed. While marriage is universal, its practices differ widely depending on religious teachings, cultural norms, and historical contexts. Below is an overview of marriage practices in several major world religions.

Christianity

Christianity, the largest religion in the world, is an offshoot of Judaism and centers on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. In Christian belief, marriage is founded on love, commitment, and mutual consent. Because of this emphasis, the giving of dowry is not required and is generally unfamiliar to Christian couples. Marriage is entered into freely by both partners, and arranged marriages initiated by parents are uncommon.

The Bible does not explicitly prohibit cousin marriage, but such unions are traditionally frowned upon in many Christian communities. Eastern Orthodox Churches explicitly prohibit cousin marriage. Christianity upholds monogamy, drawing from New Testament teachings that a person should have only one spouse. Polygamy is considered a transgression and is illegal in most Christian-majority societies.

Christian marriages may be conducted as civil weddings, which are legally valid, but many couples prefer a church wedding officiated by a priest or pastor because of its spiritual solemnity. In some cultures, a proposal visit by the groom and his parents to the bride’s family is still practiced, especially among younger couples.

The wedding ceremony typically takes place in a church and may be integrated into a religious service or mass. During the ceremony, the bride and groom exchange vows, rings, and a kiss to seal their union. The bride wears an elegant wedding gown, while the groom usually wears a suit, coat and tie, or traditional attire such as the barong in the Philippines. A celebration follows, often including a banquet, gift-giving, and other festivities. These activities usually last about half a day. After the wedding, couples often go on a honeymoon lasting several weeks. The scale of the celebration depends on the couple’s preferences and financial capacity. Different Christian denominations may have specific rules governing marriage practices.

Islam

Islam is the youngest of the major world religions and the second largest after Christianity. Islamic teachings generally discourage interfaith marriage for Muslim women, although Muslim men are permitted to marry women from other Abrahamic religions. A non-Muslim man who wishes to marry a Muslim woman must first convert to Islam.

In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to give mahr (dowry) to the bride. The amount is agreed upon by the parties and often reflects social and economic considerations. Marriage between cousins, including first cousins, is permitted in Islam, though its prevalence varies by culture and country.

Islam allows a man to marry up to four wives, provided he can treat them equally in terms of financial support, emotional care, and time. In practice, most Muslim men have only one wife due to the responsibilities involved. While the consent of the first wife is not legally required for subsequent marriages, it is often socially important.

Muslim weddings may be simple or elaborate. Essential requirements include the nikah (marriage contract), the consent of both bride and groom, the mahr, and witnesses. Wedding celebrations may last from one to three days or longer, depending on cultural tradition.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions, dating back over 3,000 years and originating in ancient Persia (modern-day Iran). Following the spread of Islam, the religion declined significantly, though communities still exist in Iran, India, and the global diaspora. Zoroastrians in India are commonly known as Parsis.

Traditionally, Zoroastrians practiced endogamy, allowing marriage only within the faith, including cousin marriages. In contemporary times, especially among Parsis and diaspora communities, interfaith marriage and marriage outside the clan are increasingly accepted. Interfaith families may be recognized within the community, although such marriages remain rare in Iran.

Zoroastrians do not traditionally practice dowry or parent-arranged marriages. Individuals marry of their own free will. While ancient Zoroastrian societies practiced polygamy as a cultural custom, modern Zoroastrianism strongly favors monogamy, and polygamy is discouraged.

A Zoroastrian wedding ceremony conducted in a fire temple typically lasts 45 minutes to one hour, followed by a reception that may last three to five hours, usually completed within a single day.

Judaism

Judaism is one of the oldest monotheistic religions and the religious foundation from which Christianity emerged. While conversion to Judaism is permitted, it involves a deliberate and rigorous process. Judaism has a relatively small number of adherents worldwide.

Historically, cousin marriage, including first-cousin unions, has been permitted in Jewish law. In modern times, however, such marriages are generally discouraged, particularly among Reform and Conservative Jewish communities. In Orthodox and ultra-Orthodox communities, pre-arranged marriages known as shidduch are common. In these arrangements, parents or matchmakers suggest potential partners, but the consent of both the man and the woman is essential. Among Reform and Conservative Jews, individuals usually choose their own partners.

In Jewish marriage, the bride does not give dowry. Instead, the husband makes a financial commitment to the wife through a marriage contract called the ketubah. The wedding ceremony takes place under a canopy known as the chuppah, symbolizing the home the couple will build together. The ketubah is signed before or during the ceremony. At the conclusion, the groom breaks a glass, and the guests exclaim “Mazel tov,” meaning “congratulations.”

Jewish weddings are joyful events marked by music, singing, and lively dances such as the hora, during which the couple may be lifted on chairs. The ceremony typically lasts 20 to 45 minutes, while the celebration and banquet may continue for three to six hours. Although weddings can be grand and elaborate, the central emphasis remains on the couple’s commitment rather than the scale or cost of the celebration.

Buddhism

Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, and is both a religion and a philosophy emphasizing ethical living, wisdom, and mental discipline to reduce suffering and attain inner peace. Buddhism is highly flexible regarding marriage and places importance on mutual respect, compassion, and ethical conduct.

Interfaith marriage is allowed in Buddhism, and neither partner is required to convert. While pre-arranged marriages may exist in some cultures influenced by Buddhism, they are generally uncommon. Dowry is not a religious requirement, as marriage is viewed primarily as a harmonious partnership rather than a contractual exchange.

Buddhist weddings are usually civil ceremonies, sometimes accompanied by cultural traditions and Buddhist blessings. These blessings may be offered even when one spouse is not Buddhist. In modern Buddhist societies, polygamy is not practiced and is often illegal, with monogamy being the norm.

Hinduism

Hinduism is among the world’s oldest religions, encompassing a wide range of philosophies, rituals, and social customs. It allows interfaith marriage depending on family, community, and regional traditions. Such marriages are not strictly regulated by religious doctrine, and conversion is not mandatory, though social opposition may exist, particularly in caste-based communities.

Arranged marriage has long been a respected practice in Hindu society, although its form has evolved over time. Love marriages and arranged marriages are both recognized. Cousin marriage is socially accepted in many South Indian Hindu communities, including marriages between a man and his mother’s brother’s daughter or his father’s sister’s daughter, as well as uncle–niece marriages in some regions. In contrast, most North Indian Hindu communities consider cousin marriage incestuous and strictly follow gotra (clan lineage) rules, which prohibit marriage within the same lineage. Hindu scriptures do not clearly ban cousin marriage; instead, marriage rules are governed largely by local customs and traditions.

Traditional Hindu marriage types include Brahma marriage (the most respected form, in which parents give the bride to a suitable groom), Daiva marriage (now rare and obsolete), Arsha or Prajapatya marriage (simple, duty-oriented unions), and Gandharva marriage (a love marriage based on mutual consent).

Hindu weddings are often colorful, elaborate, and multi-day celebrations. Common events include engagement rituals, mehndi (henna ceremony), sangeet (music and dance night), the wedding ceremony around a sacred fire, and a reception. Celebrations may last from two to five days or longer. Weddings feature vibrant attire, jewelry, floral decorations, sacred chants, music, dance, and large communal feasts. While Hindu weddings are traditionally grand, simplicity is also acceptable, and extravagance is not a religious requirement.

Hinduism does not religiously mandate polygamy, nor does it encourage it. Monogamy is the norm, and polygamy is illegal for Hindus in India. Dowry is not a religious requirement in Hindu marriage, although it has existed historically as a social custom in some regions.

 

 

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Christianity and Islam, the Religions that Shaped the Course of World History

 

A Catholic cathedral in the Philippines

A son of a carpenter, Jesus was born at about 4 or 6 BC during the reign of Roman emperor Augustus Caesar. He assembled twelve disciples to represent the twelve tribes of Israel and started his ministry at about the age of 30. He preached about Jewish laws and religion and the eminent coming of the kingdom of God. His activities were not seen favorably by the Jewish religious leaders who considered him as a threat to the stability to the community. His claim as a son of God was deem unacceptable and highly blasphemous. The high priests plotted against him and succeeded in making Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea order Jesus’ crucifixion.

                              Jesus and Thomas after the Resurrection by Caravaggio (a public domain image)

Jewish and Roman authorities thought the death of Jesus would put an end to his following. But his disciples and his followers even became more devoted and firmer believer of him after his death. Jesus followers claimed that they saw him resurrected as he had said and promised. And they were willing to suffer or die for what they believed in. With their preaching and healing of the people, the early Christians were able to gain adherents, and soon they moved into the realm of the Roman Empire amid hardships and persecutions armed only with their willingness to sacrifice and the strength of their conviction. The promise of salvation, an eternal life for everyone and the reported miracles and healing convinced people that the one Christian God is superior to the pagans’ many gods which drove them to accept the new faith. And soon Christianity became the wave of belief whose rise in momentum could not be contained by the Roman Empire, the mightiest power on earth at that time.

Roman Emperor Constantine the Great who along with his forces saw a sign in the sky before the battle at Milvian Bridge against Maxentius on October AD 312 and attributed that vision for his victory in the battle. He adopted to the new faith and became the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. In AD 313 he issued an edict permitting Christians and people of other faith to profess their belief without fear of persecution. In AD 380 Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, and this made the religion spread massively across the Middle East and much of Europe.

The extent of the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Trajan. Photo credit: Tataryn at Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0Unported

In AD 570 in Mecca, in Arabia Muhammad the prophet of Islam was born. At age 25 he married a wealthy widow named Kadijah. In his retreats in a cave in Mount Hira he encountered a being who told him to recite words. Afraid and thinking that he was becoming mad, he told the matter to Kadijah who in turn took him to Nofil, her Christian cousin. Nofil reassured Muhammad that what he saw was Angel Gabriel and that what he told him was message from Allah or God. Her words convinced Muhammad that he was indeed a messenger of Allah and that he had a mission to spread Allah's words.

Muhammad started to establish his new religion called Islam at Mecca at first. But locals as well the rulers were not interested, and they were even hostile to him and his few followers so that they feared for their safety. Muhammad and his followers fled to Medina in what Muslims called the event as Hegira. In Medina he was able to convert people to Islam and soon he was able to gain many followers. From Medina he returned triumphantly to Mecca where people now accepted Islam as their faith. Muhammad died in AD 632, and at that time Islam had already widely spread in Arabia. His successors called the caliphs then took the task of spreading the message of Allah and Islam beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula.

The caliphs propagated Islam by persuasion or by the sword overrunning Christian territories in most of the Middle East. They also marched toward northern India, Africa and Anatolia in present day Turkey. Christian Europe would be a prize target for Islamic conquest.

Muslims under the Umayyad Caliphate composed of Moors, Berbers and Arabs led by Tariq Ibn Ziyad crossed the strait of Gibraltar at about AD 711. They then conquered the Visigothic Christian Kingdom of Spain and in series of military campaigns controlled a vast region which they called Al-Andalus or Andalusia. To spread Islam farther, the Muslim Moors advanced north but they were defeated by Charles Martel, the Frankish leader in the Battle of tours in France on October AD 732. Defeated, the Moors retreated to Spain where they ruled in large part of that country for almost 800 years.

To protect pilgrims in the holy lands, to stop Muslim incursions into Christian territories and to recover places conquered by the Muslims in the Middle East, Christian kingdoms in Europe with the blessing of the pope launched military expeditions or crusades to execute those missions. The crusades were conducted from 1095 until 1291. However, the effort failed and the Holy Land and the Middle East remained firmly under Muslim control.  

Over time, in Spain the Christian kingdoms slowly regained much of their lost territories from the Muslims in a crusade known as Reconquista. The last straw for the Moors came with the marriage of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castille. Their combined forces defeated Boabdil or Sultan Muhammad XII of Granada on January 2, 1492.  In the aftermath, the Moorish Sultan was sent back to Morocco and all Muslims and Jews who would not convert to Catholicism were expelled from Spain.

On May 29, 1453, Constantinople, Christendom’s second most important city after Rome and the seat of the eastern Roman Empire which was also known as the Byzantine Empire fell into the hands of the Muslim Ottoman Turks under the leadership of the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II.

A picture of the Hagia Sophia, a Christian Cathedral turned into a mosque after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. A photo by Dennis Jarvis at Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 20 Generic.

The event had a far-reaching impact to the world since Constantinople is situated strategically in the southeastern tip of Europe and beyond its coast not far away is the northern tip of Anatolia or Asia Minor. Both places are separated only by the narrow Strait of Bosporus which made that city an ideal transport point for goods and people coming from Europe to Asia or vice versa for military, commercial or other purposes. Muslim control of lands in the Middle East and the fall of Constantinople made it difficult for goods such as silks, porcelains and spices from India, China and the Far East to be transported to Europe via the traditional silk route. And those that made their way into Europe became expensive.

European kingdoms particularly Spain and Portugal looked for ways to get around the traditional but perilous routes to procure those desired goods coming from the east. And they came up with the idea of sea travels as the alternative. The execution of that concept ushered into the Age of Exploration or Age of Discovery.

Victoria, Ferdinand Magellan’s ship from a map of Ortelius (a public domain image)

An Age of Exploration era ship from a public domain image titled “Half Moon in Hudson”

The Age of Exploration which began in the 1400’s paved the way for the transport of goods and people from erstwhile unexplored lands to Europe and vice versa. This interaction also brought with it the exchange of ideas and technology as well as the transmission of communicable diseases. The Portuguese and the Spanish also discovered vast tracts of lands that they colonized. They brought people from Europe and had them settle in discovered new lands, and also profited from the slave trade which forcibly brought people from Africa to work as slave labor in the new world. This situation displaced the indigenous people and in some cases they were decimated by diseases carried by the Europeans. The movement of peoples from one place to another changed the demographic landscape of a place. The Age of Exploration was an era when European maritime powers spread their language, culture and the religion of Christianity to many parts of the world. Other European countries such as England, France and Netherland later participated in the exploration of uncharted or undeveloped land in continents such as the Americas, Australia and South East Asia. The exploration made by the Europeans gave rise to the birth of new countries in the New World and some of these countries such as the United States and others have even become stronger than their former mother countries.

Slave Trade by Auguste Francois Biard (a public domain image)

Jesus is one of the greatest and most adored historical figures who ever lived. His teachings and deeds have profound influence in the lives and culture of billions of people. Christians believe that he is God’s fulfillment of the promised messiah in the Bible and the Son of God. On the contrary the Jews claim that he is not because he did not satisfy the criteria of being the Messiah. Muslims say that he is just a mere prophet. Others say that he is just a man like the rest of us. Divine or not, Jesus Christ is undeniably a figure who we can draw inspiration and emulation from. He was a pacifist par excellence. His teaching of loving God, your neighbor including your enemies; the forgiveness of people who wronged us, not judging others for their fault and other teachings are acts of kindness that will bring good even to people with the hardest of heart. These teachings will always remain relevant and will stand to the test of time for many generations.

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Spices, the Food Commodity that Changed the World https://lapasan-myblognoel145.blogspot.com/2014/03/spices-food-commodities-that-changed.html

The Resurrection, a Testament to the Divinity of Jesus

The Resurrected Jesus by Noel Coypel

The resurrection of Jesus is one of the most compelling doctrines of the Christian faith. According to this doctrine, Jesus, by rising from the dead, gave humanity hope of life after death in the kingdom of heaven. Without the resurrection Christianity would not have taken its roots after the death of Jesus on the cross.                                                                                                                                                                            

Jesus was the son of a carpenter named Joseph and Mary who the Bible said divinely conceived Jesus. Little was said about Jesus in his early childhood until he started his ministry in his 30’s. He organized 12 disciples in accordance with the 12 tribes of Israel. He preached in Capernaum and Bethsaida proclaiming the advent of the kingdom of God. He also helped those who were poor in physical resources and spirit and emphasized that moral sincerity was more important than strict adherence to Jewish rituals. Although he was appreciated by the common people, Jesus incurred the enmity of the priests because of his teachings. They thought that his activities might lead the people stray from the laws of the Torah, and that his’ influence to the people might prejudice the Jews’ relationship with their Roman administrators.

Jesus’ claim that he was the Son of God was not favorably received by some people. When words about it reached the ears of the priests and the Supreme Jewish Council, they conspired to kill him.  They bribed Judas Iscariot, one of the disciples of Jesus to betray him for 30 pieces of silver.

During the feast of the Jewish Passover, Jesus gathered his disciples for their meal. He blessed the unleavened bread and said that it was his body and the wine his blood. He told his disciples to follow what he did for his memory. In that occasion he told them of his coming death, and that one of them will betray him. Disturbed, his disciples individually asked if it was he who would betray him. When it was Judas turn to ask that question Jesus answered in the affirmative.

After the meal Jesus and his disciples retreated to the Mount of Olives to reflect and pray. There, he told them of his resurrection. They also went to the Garden of Gethsemane where later a group of people led by Judas Iscariot came. With a kiss, Judas handed Jesus over to the Jews. Jesus was brought to Annas, the father-in- law of Caiaphas, the high priest.and then to King Herod. Finally, he was made to face the high priest and the Supreme Council of the Jews for trial. When the high priest asked if he was the son of God and the Messiah, he admitted it. And the high priest then rent his vestment and said that there was no need for more evidence to prove Jesus’ guilt. And then they sentenced him to death for blasphemy.

Since only the Roman procurator had the power to impose capital punishment, they brought Jesus to Pontius Pilate. Not convinced of the truthfulness of the accusation against him, Pilate asked him if he is the King of the Jews. Jesus’ affirmative reply only aggravated his situation further. Unable to get him off the hook and concerned that the Jews might riot if he would not give the death penalty, Pilate made the last proposition for the Jews to choose between the criminal Barabbas and Jesus for the execution. But the people overwhelmingly demanded the blood of Jesus. Pilate then released the criminal from prison, washed his hands, and handed Jesus to the Jews.

While Jesus was consigned to his doomed fate, Peter, one of his most trusted disciples, watched from a distance. Then a woman asked him if he knew Jesus. Peter made a denial. After a while, another woman and later a man asked peter about Jesus, and he denied again knowing him. On his third denial a cock crowed and Peter remembered what had Jesus told him about that incident. Overwhelmed with a sense of guilt, Peter cried and stayed away from the place.

In the hands of his tormentors and executioners Jesus was whipped, beaten up, spat upon and ridiculed. They mocked him by putting on a crown of thorns on his head, a red cape on his back and handed to him a scepter of reed as “symbols or royalty”. On the top of the cross was the charge against him written on a wooden slab which read: “This is Jesus the King of the Jews”.  Jesus was made to carry his own cross all the way to the place called Golgotha. There, he was crucified together with two robbers whose crosses were at his sides. Even while Jesus was already suffering from great pain on the cross his tormentors continued to mock him saying that if he was truly the Son of God, he would save himself from death. “If he could save others, why couldn’t he save himself?”, a Jew said. While Jesus was on the cross darkness engulfed the land and when he died there was an earthquake. The veil of the temple was rent, and the wall cracked. A Roman centurion who was watching Jesus commented that he was truly the Son of God.                                                                                          

Since the following day was Sabbath, Joseph of Arimathea, a wealthy man who was one of Jesus’ followers, asked Pilate for the body of Jesus to be laid to a tomb belonging to Joseph’s family, and he was granted with the request. On the other hand, the high priest and the Pharisees, concerned that Jesus’ followers might steal his body because of his statement that he would rise three days after his death, went to Pilate and told him about it.  Pilate assured them that guards would be posted to keep watch of the tomb within that period. 

On the third day of Jesus’ death, Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of James went to tomb to anoint his body for burial. Getting there, they were surprised to find out that the stone covering the sepulcher was gone and so too were the Romans soldiers who were guarding the tomb. When they entered the sepulcher they saw inside a young man and the linen that was used to wrap Jesus’ body.  The mysterious young man told them that Jesus had risen.

                                                    

Meanwhile, the soldiers who were shaken with what they had witnessed told the high priest of the incident at the tomb, and the high priest and the Supreme Council of the Jews then bribed them to tell people that the followers of Jesus stole his body.

As they were about to go to Galilee, the women met the risen Jesus. They hold him by the feet and worshiped him. The women later told the eleven disciples about the resurrection of Jesus. But some of them were doubtful of the report. On that same day as the disciples were gathered Jesus suddenly appeared to them and showed his wounds on the cross. He touched them and ate bread and drank with them. After the meal he suddenly disappeared.

Thomas one Jesus’ disciples who were not around at his first appearance doubted the claim and said that what they saw might just be a spirit. Then on one occasion where the disciples were gathered Jesus suddenly appeared even if the door was closed. He then told Thomas to come forward and touched his wounds. Thomas obeyed and did as he was told and then knelled before him and called him "my Lord and my God". On the 40^th day after Jesus death, he appeared for the last time to his disciples and he ascended to heaven.

The disciples’ obedience to Jesus words is their testimony that he was the son of God who was resurrected from the dead. Armed only with their convictions they were able to gain many followers who believed in Jesus. They converted to the new faith not only the Jews but also Greeks, Romans, Arabs and other nationalities.

The Romans saw the early Christians as a threat to their traditional polytheistic faith so that they persecuted them to nip their new faith in the bud. Some Roman officials believed that if the new faith was not divinely inspired it would just wither away with the passing of time. But the new faith founded by Jesus and propagated by his disciples and followers wouldn’t go away and gained more and more new adherents instead. Despite the repression of the early Christians, the people in the Roman Empire were converted to the new faith. Christianity spread like wildfire, and the greatest power on earth at that time, the Roman Empire, could not even prevent its advance despite mustering its available strength to stop it.

Christianity may have died simultaneously with the death of Jesus. The sight of him claiming to be the Son of God who was helpless to the humiliation, torture and abuses of his tormentors disheartened his disciples. His chief disciple, Peter even denied him and the others abandoned him and hid in fear of their lives. However, when Jesus was risen their fear turned into courage and commitment to follow him. Disregarding persecution, and death, and guided by the Holy Spirit, they followed what was told to them by Jesus. The disciples had no power and had no comfort or material resources to offer to people who would only be subjected to harassment and sufferings for their being identified with them. And yet, people believed in them and converted to the new faith. Jesus had told his disciples of his resurrection three days after his death. If this did not happen they would have thought that what he had said and taught were false. Although there are people who will die for a lie which they sincerely believe to be true, people will not die for something that they personally know to be false especially if they do not gain anything for doing so. The disciples personally witnessed the resurrection of Jesus, and that is why they were willing to become martyrs for their faith.

The resurrected Jesus was not the same mortal Jesus that the disciples used to be with before the crucifixion. Like a spirit, the resurrected Jesus could appear all of a sudden in a place, disappear just anytime, and enter a closed door. But he was not a spirit because he talked to the women and his disciples, ate with them and had physical contact with them. His actions are not that of a man or a spirit. It’s an affirmation of Jesus' claim that he is the Son of God. His death is a conclusion of the mission given to him by his father as foretold by the prophets many years before he was born. 

Columbus, the Man Who Opened America's Door to European Settlement and Christian Evangelization

Photo credit: Sebastiano Piombo (from Wikipedia)

Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Persian Empire paved the way for the cultural and religious exchange between Europe and Asia. In addition, trade and commerce between the two continents were opened and enhanced with the flourishing of lands along the Silk Route. The Roman Empire supplanted Alexander’s Greek Empire and extended its influence into Northern Africa and Western Europe. The conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine spread Christianity all over the Roman Empire. The birth of Islam around 610 A.D. eroded Christianity’s influence over much of Asia and North Africa. In just a few years after Prophet Muhammad’s death, his followers conquered much of territories that were once parts of Persian and Roman Empires.

The fall of the Christian City of Constantinople to the Muslim Ottoman Turks in 1453 had a profound implication to Europe and the world. The Ottoman's conquest was significant in the sense that the city was the seat of the Eastern Roman Empire or the Byzantine Empire. The city’s location was also very strategic considering that it geographically links Europe and Asia, and it was a gateway for the transport of goods and people between the two continents.

The control of trade routes by hostile powers made it difficult for Europe to avail of commodities such as silk and spices from Asia. particularly those that came from India, China and Southeast Asia. It also made their cost became prohibitive. Christian maritime powers of Europe such as Spain and Portugal had to find an alternative way to Asia without passing through perilous land routes. The best option was through the sea. The competition of European powers to cross the seas to reach the spice islands in Asia ushered in the Age of Exploration.  

Christopher Columbus (30 Oct. 1451-20 May 1506) a Genoese navigator, proposed to King John II of Portugal an expedition to the East Indies via western sea route. But the monarch was not convinced and turned down his proposal. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias, sailing southeast reached Cape of Good Hope which was a spring board toward the East Indies.  The success of Dias doused any hope of Columbus to have the king agree with his proposition.

Failing in his bid, Columbus presented his idea to King Henry VII of England who also turned it down. He later went to King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella of Castile, Spain. At first, the monarchs were skeptical of Columbus’ proposal. However, it occurred to them that the eastern sea route was already taken and controlled by rival Portugal, and Columbus’ proposal if successful would give Spain an edge in the lucrative spice trade.

Photo credit: John Vanderlyn (from Wikipedia)

Photo credit: E. Benjamin Andrews (from Wikipedia)

In 1492, Columbus was granted authority by Queen Isabella to sail to Asia. He was given three ships- the Pinta, the Niña and the Santa Maria which was his flagship. For claims on new lands to the crown Columbus was entitled to the following privileges: a rank of “the Admiral of the Ocean”; a designation of viceroy or governor of new found lands; a 10% perpetual share of profits earned as a result of his explorations, and the option to buy 1/8 interest in commercial venture in the new lands and to receive 1/8 of the profits.

On August 3, 1492, Columbus with his fleet of three ships departed from Palos de la Frontera, and sailed to his destination. After travelling considerable distances, he saw an island and landed on it. He named it San Salvador. He then passed through groups of islands that is now called the Bahamas and explored the northern coast of Cuba and Hispaniola. At that time Columbus believed that he had reached India, and even called the native inhabitants “Indios”or Indians. The Spanish crown was pleased with Columbus’ discovery, and was prepared to grant the condition set by Columbus in return for the successful voyage.

After meeting the monarchs, Columbus left port of Cadiz, Spain on September 24, 1493, for a second voyage. With a fleet of 17 ships and 1,200 men composed of soldiers, farmers and priests, he aimed to establish permanent colonies in new found lands. In his third voyages in 1498 Columbus with a fleet of six ships made further explorations to the islands and reached as far as the western coasts of South America. He returned to Hispaniola only to find that the Spanish settlers of the new colony were rebellious to his role. He made peace with them, but the news of his gross mismanagement and tyranny had already reached the Spanish monarchs who ordered that Columbus and his brothers be arrested and returned to Spain. Columbus was replaced as governor by Francisco de Bobadilla, a member of the Order of Calatrava. In Spain Columbus and his brothers were imprisoned, and he was divested of his privileges and properties. 

  

King Ferdinand II listened to Columbus’ plea and released him and his brothers after six weeks of confinement. They were also restored of their wealth and privileges. Columbus was also allowed to lead another voyage to the new found lands. But this time he would no longer serve as governor. He left Cadiz on 11 May 1502 with a fleet of three ships. He explored several islands and landed in Hispaniola. He explored the west coasts of Central America and east coasts of Cuba. A fierce storm stranded his fleet in Jamaica where he remained for almost a year. Columbus and his men then returned to Spain. They arrived in San Lucar on June 29, 1504. In Spain, Columbus' long years of travels took a toll on his health. He was severely stricken with diseases. Columbus died on May 20, 1506, probably at age 54 in Valladolid, Spain.

Critics of Columbus cited the negative effects of his explorations. They claimed that the arrival of the European settlers caused the depopulation of the indigenous Taino and Arawak Indians. The Indians were being exploited for forced labor such as having them worked in gold mines. Spanish soldiers committed with impunity grave abuses such as massacres and rapes. Indigenous people were seized, captured and sent to Spain as slaves with about half of them dying en route. The pandemic of small pox in 1519 which was brought by the European settlers into the islands almost brought to extinction the indigenous inhabitants.

Map from Wikipedia

Columbus’ erroneous view that the lands that he found were part of Asia denied him the honor of having the continent named after him. Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator, who came to the new lands a year after Columbus, correctly speculated that the land Columbus discovered was not Asia. Amerigo's travel journals also convinced German cartographer Martin Wadseemuller to reach the same conclusion. Wadseemuller published a world map in 1507 referring to the big new found continent as “America”, which is the Latinized version of Amerigo. With that map, people at that time also followed suit to refer to the continent as “America”. For it, Vespucci was unintentionally and undeservedly accorded an honor that should have rightfully belonged to Columbus.

It is claimed that Vikings came to America before Columbus did, and therefore he was not the first European to discover it. But there is no doubt that Columbus’ explorations were the ones which certainly opened the door of the American continent for European settlement. After Columbus had claimed lands for Spain, other European powers such as Portugal, England, France and Netherlands followed to explore the hitherto huge unknown continent. This resulted to the influx of immigrants who brought along with them their languages and cultures, and created new Independent nations with predominantly European cultures and demographics. The predominantly Christian roots of the immigrant people have also brought about the Christian evangelization of the American continent, thus making Christianity the largest religion of the world.

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Christianity and Islam, the Religions that Shaped the Course of History https://lapasan-myblognoel145.blogspot.com/2022/04/christianity-and-islam-religions-that.html

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Hagia Sophia, a Beautiful, Historic World Monument

Photo by Bigdaddy (from Wikimedia Commons)

Hagia Sophia or the Church of the Holy Wisdom in Greek, Sancta Sophia in Latin and Aya Sofya in Turkish is a historic monument of two great empires that shaped the course of world history- the Roman and Ottoman Empires. It also served as a house of worship of adherents of two of the world’s largest religions- Christianity and Islam. It was the largest cathedral in the world until 1520. Hagia Sophia is famous for its massive dome.

Hagia Sophia was built on the site where Emperor Constantine built a wooden church. The second church was built by his son Constantius and the Emperor Theodosius the Great. That church was burned. Under the supervision of Justinian I, the church was rebuilt in its present form around 532 and 537 AD.

Constantine was the first Roman Emperor who became Christian. He later promoted Christianity and moved his capital from Rome to Byzantium, an ancient Greek city. After he defeated his rivals, Constantine rebuilt Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople. It later became the capital of the eastern half of the Roman Empire which was also called the Byzantine Empire. Its heartland was Asia Minor and the Balkans.

Constantinople was situated on the southern coastal tip of the Balkan Peninsula along the Strait of Bosporus that separates the continents of Europe and Asia. The city’s strategic location provided the Byzantine Empire easy economic and military access to its territories across Asia and Southern Europe.

Justinian hired architects Isodore Militus and Arthemius of Tralles, both teachers of Geometry to design the church. He imported materials from neighboring places such as Ephesus, Athens, Rome and Delphi. The original dome of the church which Militus and Arthemius designed collapsed in an earthquake in 558. The replacement of 563 had to be repaired after a partial collapse in the 9^th and 14^th centuries.

In 1204 Hagia Sophia was attacked and sacked by the crusaders and looted of its properties. They arrested the Patriarch of Constantinople and replaced him with a Latin bishop. This event irreconcilably divided the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches which had long standing disputes that started from the great schism of 1054.

Photo by Andreas Wahra (from Wikimedia Commons)

Islamic text inside Hagia Sophia

In May 1453, Constantinople, the seat of the Byzantine Empire and the greatest city of Eastern Christendom at that time fell to the Muslim Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mehmet II. Amazed by the architectural beauty of the church, he converted Hagia Sophia into a mosque. Since then it remained a principal mosque for about 500 years. Hagia Sophia’s design then served as model of many mosques built around Constantinople and its neighboring areas.

The prominent feature of the cathedral is its dome which measures 230 ft (70 m) in width and 246 ft (75 m) in height. The dome is supported by pendentives which are rested on a square of 4 columns below. The 48 windows around the base of the dome reflect sunlight everywhere into the interior of the nave.

A mosaic depicting Jesus (center)

Mosaic of Virgin Mary and child Jesus. Photo by Griffendor (from Wikimedia Commons) 

The changes made during the Turkish era had markedly altered the outer appearance of Hagia Sophia so that it was indistinguishable that it was once a church. There are buttresses built to support the outer walls to ensure their endurance over the century. Four minarets were added by the corners of the church. The mihrab, the fountain, and mausoleum give the Hagia Sophia a mosque appearance. However, the inside of the edifice reveals the original purpose of its building. There are 6^th century church features such as mosaics painted on the walls depicting various Christian religious scenes. When Hagia Sophia was a mosque some mosaics were covered with plaster because of Muslim prohibition of figurative imagery. Further renovations of the church that was turned into mosque were made by Abdulmecid in 1847 who invited Swiss architects Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati to do the job.

After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and following the establishment of Turkey as a nation, Constantinople was renamed Istanbul in 1930, and President Kemal Attaturk had the Hagia Sophia secularized by turning it into a museum in 1934.

Hagia Sophia is a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. This priceless historic world monument is a UNESCO world cultural heritage site. Hagia Sophia is a major landmark and a tourist attraction of Turkey. All year round it is visited by tourists from different parts of the world.

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Armed Conflicts in Syria and Iraq Threaten Christian Communities with Extinction

Photo credit to Massalim (from Wikipedia)

Civil wars and rebellions in Syria and Iraq have triggered the Diaspora of Christians to other lands where they can make their family safe from harm. The US invasion of Iraq in 2003, the Arab Spring which toppled down well entrenched authoritarian leaders and the rise of the ISIS in Syria and Iraq have had a negative impact on the lives of Christians and other minorities such as the Yazidis.

Peoples in the west have negative views on autocratic leaders such as the late Saddam Hussein, and Muammar Khadafy of Libya and the deposed and imprisoned Hosni Mubarak of Egypt. Although those leaders were considered as dictatorial and corrupt, they were able to effectively control troublesome and problematic groups such as the Islamist extremists and the separatist minorities. On the positive side, the strong authoritarian regimes had made Christians live peacefully with their Muslim neighbors. The deposition of Hussein only resulted to a replacement by a weak leader who could not deal with rival factions in Iraq. In the aftermath of the Egyptian revolution Mohamed Morsi of the Muslim Brotherhood was elected president. However, the military view Morsi and his organization as extremist, and the military led by General  Abdel Fattah el Sisi deposed him in a coup d’ etat in 2013. If Morsi had stayed long in office, the Christians could have been a target of persecutions in Egypt and could result in their leaving the country. It is noteworthy that in Morsi’s short stay in office there were clashes between opposition groups and his supporters, and there were mass protests by the people in the streets.  With Morsi gone, Egypt now has enjoyed a relative peace compared to other countries that are also affected by the Arab Spring such as Syria and Iraq.

 Although the west depicted Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad as a brutal dictator, minorities such as Christians have not suffered persecutions under his leadership. Armed oppositions of his regime such as the Nusra Front and the ISIS are groups with extreme religious views and are considered terrorist organizations by the west. Replacement of the present Syrian leadership with any of these groups may not bode well for the minority Christians living in Syria.  

The crisis in Syria and Iraq has brought forth the emergence of groups that have extreme religious view such as the al Nusra and the ISIS. The ISIS has captured swath of lands from those countries for its caliphate. Wherever it goes it commits unimaginable atrocities to fellow Muslims, Christians and other minorities such as the Yazidis. Its onslaught seemed to be unstoppable at the start, but lately its image of invincibility has started to crumble with the gradual recapture of ISIS-held lands by the Iraqi, Kurdish and the coalition forces.

ISIS has a signature style of casting terror into the minds of its victims to make them submit to its will. Its acts include forcibly converting Christians and other groups including even the Shias to its extreme interpretation of Islam. Christians are given the option to pay the jisya tax if they will not change their religion otherwise they will leave the area or be killed. People who cross ISIS’ path will be killed, their properties seized and their female relatives raped or turned into sex slave. Under this condition Christians and even Muslim evacuate to other areas for their own safety.

It remains to be seen if the ISIS could successfully and effectively run its caliphate. Its seized oil wells and refineries are bombed by US and coalition planes to cripple down its ability to fund its operations. However, some analysts say that ISIS is not easy to defeat. And they are not certain when the conflict ends. But until then Syria and Iraq will be depopulated gradually of its Christian minority. Christians will emigrate to the neighboring countries and to far away western countries including USA, Canada and Australia. And probably those who do will not come back. The armed conflicts have paved the way for an eventual disappearance of Christianity from the land of its birth. It is ironic that as the Christian faith steadily spreads in many countries making it as the largest religion of the world as ever, it is slowly disappearing in the land where it has a 2,000 year-old rich biblical and historical legacies.

  

Kurdish Female Warriors Take on the ISIS

Flag of Peshmerga

With its military victories in some parts of Syria and Iraq, the Islamic State or ISIS is able to control large swath of land on said countries. Members of the militant group are known for their ruthlessness wherever they are. They forced minorities such as Christians and Yazidis to convert to Islam or be killed. There are reports of mass rape of women and of abduction and of making them sex slaves to the militants.  Captured women are married off to the militants or are sold as bride for as low as $100. Caught enemy combatants are beheaded, crucified or tortured. Even the Al Qaeda is appalled with the extreme brutalities of the ISIS. The king of Saudi Arabia and some Muslim clerics have denounced the atrocities of the ISIS and call their actions as not compatible with Islam.

   

Lately, the Iraqi security Forces and the Kurdish Peshmerga fighters with US air strike support are able to slow down ISIS advance and are able to retake strategic areas that were captured by the ISIS. The Peshmerga or “those who confront death” is the security force of the autonomous region of Kurdistan. In the recent conflict it is in the forefront of battling the well armed, well funded and highly motivated ISIS militants. It also take up the cudgel for their fellow Kurds including the Yazidis to protect them from the militants who consider them as “devil worshippers”, and are therefore a fair game for persecution.

Members of Peshmerga forces include women, and an all –women Peshmerga Battalion is in the frontline against the ISIS militants. The reported violations of some Kurdish women by the ISIS militants made many women that include the youth and housewives to volunteer for military service. As combatants the women can help protect their homeland and stop the ISIS militants from making them booties of war if their village is overrun. 

For the terrorists it is ironic that women who they think are inferior to men are challenging them in the battlefield.  It is believed that this ruthless group considers it to be a worse nightmare for a jihadist to fight female enemy warrior. They believe that they would be denied entry into paradise if women killed them. Indeed the Kurds know the mindset of the terrorists and turn their absurd beliefs against them.