Christianity and Islam, the Religions that Shaped the Course of World History

 

A Catholic cathedral in the Philippines

A son of a carpenter, Jesus was born at about 4 or 6 BC during the reign of Roman emperor Augustus Caesar. He assembled twelve disciples to represent the twelve tribes of Israel and started his ministry at about the age of 30. He preached about Jewish laws and religion and the eminent coming of the kingdom of God. His activities were not seen favorably by the Jewish religious leaders who considered him as a threat to the stability to the community. His claim as a son of God was deem unacceptable and highly blasphemous. The high priests plotted against him and succeeded in making Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea order Jesus’ crucifixion.

                              Jesus and Thomas after the Resurrection by Caravaggio (a public domain image)

Jewish and Roman authorities thought the death of Jesus would put an end to his following. But his disciples and his followers even became more devoted and firmer believer of him after his death. Jesus followers claimed that they saw him resurrected as he had said and promised. And they were willing to suffer or die for what they believed in. With their preaching and healing of the people, the early Christians were able to gain adherents, and soon they moved into the realm of the Roman Empire amid hardships and persecutions armed only with their willingness to sacrifice and the strength of their conviction. The promise of salvation, an eternal life for everyone and the reported miracles and healing convinced people that the one Christian God is superior to the pagans’ many gods which drove them to accept the new faith. And soon Christianity became the wave of belief whose rise in momentum could not be contained by the Roman Empire, the mightiest power on earth at that time.

Roman Emperor Constantine the Great who along with his forces saw a sign in the sky before the battle at Milvian Bridge against Maxentius on October AD 312 and attributed that vision for his victory in the battle. He adopted to the new faith and became the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. In AD 313 he issued an edict permitting Christians and people of other faith to profess their belief without fear of persecution. In AD 380 Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, and this made the religion spread massively across the Middle East and much of Europe.

The extent of the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Trajan. Photo credit: Tataryn at Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0Unported

In AD 570 in Mecca, in Arabia Muhammad the prophet of Islam was born. At age 25 he married a wealthy widow named Kadijah. In his retreats in a cave in Mount Hira he encountered a being who told him to recite words. Afraid and thinking that he was becoming mad, he told the matter to Kadijah who in turn took him to Nofil, her Christian cousin. Nofil reassured Muhammad that what he saw was Angel Gabriel and that what he told him was message from Allah or God. Her words convinced Muhammad that he was indeed a messenger of Allah and that he had a mission to spread Allah's words.

Muhammad started to establish his new religion called Islam at Mecca at first. But locals as well the rulers were not interested, and they were even hostile to him and his few followers so that they feared for their safety. Muhammad and his followers fled to Medina in what Muslims called the event as Hegira. In Medina he was able to convert people to Islam and soon he was able to gain many followers. From Medina he returned triumphantly to Mecca where people now accepted Islam as their faith. Muhammad died in AD 632, and at that time Islam had already widely spread in Arabia. His successors called the caliphs then took the task of spreading the message of Allah and Islam beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula.

The caliphs propagated Islam by persuasion or by the sword overrunning Christian territories in most of the Middle East. They also marched toward northern India, Africa and Anatolia in present day Turkey. Christian Europe would be a prize target for Islamic conquest.

Muslims under the Umayyad Caliphate composed of Moors, Berbers and Arabs led by Tariq Ibn Ziyad crossed the strait of Gibraltar at about AD 711. They then conquered the Visigothic Christian Kingdom of Spain and in series of military campaigns controlled a vast region which they called Al-Andalus or Andalusia. To spread Islam farther, the Muslim Moors advanced north but they were defeated by Charles Martel, the Frankish leader in the Battle of tours in France on October AD 732. Defeated, the Moors retreated to Spain where they ruled in large part of that country for almost 800 years.

To protect pilgrims in the holy lands, to stop Muslim incursions into Christian territories and to recover places conquered by the Muslims in the Middle East, Christian kingdoms in Europe with the blessing of the pope launched military expeditions or crusades to execute those missions. The crusades were conducted from 1095 until 1291. However, the effort failed and the Holy Land and the Middle East remained firmly under Muslim control.  

Over time, in Spain the Christian kingdoms slowly regained much of their lost territories from the Muslims in a crusade known as Reconquista. The last straw for the Moors came with the marriage of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castille. Their combined forces defeated Boabdil or Sultan Muhammad XII of Granada on January 2, 1492.  In the aftermath, the Moorish Sultan was sent back to Morocco and all Muslims and Jews who would not convert to Catholicism were expelled from Spain.

On May 29, 1453, Constantinople, Christendom’s second most important city after Rome and the seat of the eastern Roman Empire which was also known as the Byzantine Empire fell into the hands of the Muslim Ottoman Turks under the leadership of the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II.

A picture of the Hagia Sophia, a Christian Cathedral turned into a mosque after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. A photo by Dennis Jarvis at Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 20 Generic.

The event had a far-reaching impact to the world since Constantinople is situated strategically in the southeastern tip of Europe and beyond its coast not far away is the northern tip of Anatolia or Asia Minor. Both places are separated only by the narrow Strait of Bosporus which made that city an ideal transport point for goods and people coming from Europe to Asia or vice versa for military, commercial or other purposes. Muslim control of lands in the Middle East and the fall of Constantinople made it difficult for goods such as silks, porcelains and spices from India, China and the Far East to be transported to Europe via the traditional silk route. And those that made their way into Europe became expensive.

European kingdoms particularly Spain and Portugal looked for ways to get around the traditional but perilous routes to procure those desired goods coming from the east. And they came up with the idea of sea travels as the alternative. The execution of that concept ushered into the Age of Exploration or Age of Discovery.

Victoria, Ferdinand Magellan’s ship from a map of Ortelius (a public domain image)

An Age of Exploration era ship from a public domain image titled “Half Moon in Hudson”

The Age of Exploration which began in the 1400’s paved the way for the transport of goods and people from erstwhile unexplored lands to Europe and vice versa. This interaction also brought with it the exchange of ideas and technology as well as the transmission of communicable diseases. The Portuguese and the Spanish also discovered vast tracts of lands that they colonized. They brought people from Europe and had them settle in discovered new lands, and also profited from the slave trade which forcibly brought people from Africa to work as slave labor in the new world. This situation displaced the indigenous people and in some cases they were decimated by diseases carried by the Europeans. The movement of peoples from one place to another changed the demographic landscape of a place. The Age of Exploration was an era when European maritime powers spread their language, culture and the religion of Christianity to many parts of the world. Other European countries such as England, France and Netherland later participated in the exploration of uncharted or undeveloped land in continents such as the Americas, Australia and South East Asia. The exploration made by the Europeans gave rise to the birth of new countries in the New World and some of these countries such as the United States and others have even become stronger than their former mother countries.

Slave Trade by Auguste Francois Biard (a public domain image)

Jesus is one of the greatest and most adored historical figures who ever lived. His teachings and deeds have profound influence in the lives and culture of billions of people. Christians believe that he is God’s fulfillment of the promised messiah in the Bible and the Son of God. On the contrary the Jews claim that he is not because he did not satisfy the criteria of being the Messiah. Muslims say that he is just a mere prophet. Others say that he is just a man like the rest of us. Divine or not, Jesus Christ is undeniably a figure who we can draw inspiration and emulation. He was a pacifist par excellence. His teaching of loving God, your neighbor including your enemies; the forgiveness of people who wronged us, not judging others for their fault and other teachings are acts of kindness that will bring good even to people with the hardest of heart. These teachings will always remain relevant and will stand to the test of time for many generations.

The Armenian Genocide (Calling a Spade a Spade)

Photo credit: Henry Morgenthau (Wikimedia Commons)

April 24, 2015 is the centennial of the first genocide that took place in the 20^th century. The Armenians who were the victims of the catastrophic human tragedy want the world to know and remember the sufferings of their ancestors and the atrocities perpetrated by the forces of the defunct Ottoman Empire at the height of World War I. It is claimed by various reliable sources that as many as 1.5 million Armenians were systematically exterminated by the Ottoman authority using its military and other institutions.

Photo credit: Aurora Mardiganian (Wikimedia Commons)

Wikimedia Commons

The massacres took place with the backdrop of the First World War and the Russian Revolution which resulted to the abdication of Czar Nicholas II of Russia. The Ottoman Empire on which the present day country of Turkey is carved out joined the war on the side of the Central Powers which included among its allies Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Russia, a rival power of the Ottoman Empire joined the war on the side of the allies which also included France and Great Britain among other nations. The event of the Russian Revolution saw the Russian forces withdrew its participation in the war in order for the Czar to attend to more pressing domestic political issues at home. Although the Allied Forces were victorious in the war and the Ottoman Empire defeated, minorities such as the Armenians who sided with the Russians suffered unimaginable sufferings at the hands of the Ottoman forces and administrators. Atrocities inflicted on the Armenians include summary executions and their expulsions from their native lands and deportation to other territories within the empire. They were made to march to hostile environment like the desert and were exposed to the heat and other elements without food.

Wikimedia Commons

Turkish authorities asserted that the huge number of casualties of the Armenians during the First World War was not a Turkish Ottoman conspiracy to exterminate the Armenians as a people. And that the casualties were the result of the war on which the Armenians sided with the Ottoman Turks’ enemies- the Russians. Turkey added that Armenians casualties include those who died from other causes like diseases and starvation, and that Turkey too had its share of large casualties during the war, and that the enemies too had committed acts of brutalities against the Ottoman Turks during the war.

Pope Francis in his mass at the Saint Peter’s Basilica in Vatican on April 12, 2015, called the tragic event during the First World War as genocide. President Recep Tayyip Erdogan of Turkey quickly condemned the Pope’s declaration calling it spreading hatred and unfounded claims against Turkey. He even went further by recalling his ambassador to the Vatican. Receiving criticism on his remark, the pope also got appreciation from different organizations and countries for his candidness and courage to say things in history as what they really are. The European parliament also made non-binding resolution calling the Armenian slaughter genocide.

Armenians around the world are earnestly making effort to let the world know of the genocide during the Ottoman era. During Barrack Obama’s first presidential campaign he made hints to the Armenian-American political supporters that the United States would consider a proposal to call the massacre genocide. But since then after his election as president no official announcement has come from his office regarding the proposal.

The Armenian campaign has already got so much attention and world recognition for the memorable but tragic event. Celebrities such as Kim Kardashian who is of Armenian descent and her husband Kanye West have visited several memorials and events that are related to the genocide.

Photo Credit: Henry Morgenthau (Wikimedia Commons)

The Armenian genocide was an event on which a mighty Muslim Ottoman Empire used its armed forces and other resources to systematically annihilate the Armenians who were its small minority Christian subjects. The need for the world to recognize the genocide comes at a time when a group such as ISIS, Boko Haram and other terrorist groups are wreaking havoc in the Middle East and Africa, killing people because they do not share their belief. Turkey can also show its sincerity by admitting the excesses of its predecessors, the Ottoman Empire, and calling their action genocide. Turkey was not yet a republic when the reported massacre took place from 1915-1918.

The Janissaries

The word “janissary” comes from the Turkish “yeni cheri” or new troops. The janissaries were the elite troops and the first standing army of the Ottoman Empire. They were also the sultan’s household troops and bodyguards.

In 1380 Sultan Murad I organized the first janissary army to replace Ottoman troops derived from different Turkish tribes. These troops fought for war booty, and their loyalty belonged to their tribal leaders. Their divergent loyalties and cultural differences might turn one tribe against another. This attitude was not conducive to a stable and reliable army which the sultan could rely to protect his throne and his empire. He needed disciplined, well trained and loyal troops. And he could only attain that desire by enlisting soldiers from his non-Muslim subjects from such places as Greece, Albania, Serbia and other territories of the empire.

The first janissaries were those captured in battle. Later on as the power of the Ottoman Empire grew, the recruits were taken from the sultan’s Christian subjects who paid levies to the empire. The devsirme system of the empire was a form of levy on which Christian families would send some of their sons to serve the sultan. And the boys were then conscripted as janissaries.

Boys with ages 14 to 18 were preferred but sometimes those with ages 18 to 20 were also accepted. For practical reason these boys were then converted to Islam and given the finest military training. The boys were isolated from their families and from the rest of the society. Their barracks were their home, the corps was their family and the sultan was their father. They couldn’t marry until their retirement. They were not allowed to grow beard, but only a moustache because beard signified a freeman. Only the best could become a janissary at age 24 to 25.

The janissaries developed into disciplined and skilled troops that the sultan could rely to depend his person and his empire. They became fearsome soldiers of Europe. In recognition of their valuable services, the sultan rewarded them benefits and privileges. The janissaries were paid salaries not only in war but also in peace. They were also entitled to war booty. They were given pension upon retirement and their children were well taken care of. They also enjoyed a high standard of living and social status. A janissary had a big opportunity to become a civil or military official. He could even become a grand vizier of the sultan. Because of their power and influence the janissaries later become a powerful political and military force in the Ottoman Empire.

In the 15^th century the devsirme system of recruiting janissaries was relaxed. A Muslim could be enrolled as a janissary. Some of janissaries were enrolled into the corps even if they were born as Muslims. In the 17^th century the devsirme system was totally abolished. After this period volunteers who came mostly from Muslim families were enrolled. This changed system of recruiting janissaries started their decline as potent fighting force.

With their power, the janissaries interfered in the affairs of the empire. They exerted their influence in policy making to suit their interest. They engaged in palace coups and changed leaders they did not want. When Sultan Osman II wanted to curb their excesses after the Ottoman defeat in Poland, they arrested him, had him imprisoned and later murdered him.

The janissaries wanted more privileges and higher pay which the sultan granted lest they turn against him. They could marry while still in the service, and they could live outside the barracks. They also engaged themselves in business and dealt directly with society.

The essence which the janissaries were originally organized was completely gone. Instead of being a protector of the sultan, they become a threat to him. The original hallmarks of discipline, loyalty and courage of a janissary were no more. He became corrupt, undisciplined and ineffective soldier. The janissaries’ failure to crush a Greek rebellion that resulted to the independence of Greece totally discredited them as a dependable fighting force.

The cost of paying 350,000 men many of them not actually serving as soldiers and the janissaries’ abuse of power, military ineffectiveness and resistance to reform were too much for the empire to bear. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II plotted against the janissaries to replace them with a force along western European lines. Upon knowing the plot, the janissaries revolted. Then the sultan waged a war against them. The janissaries marched to the palace, but Sultan Mahmud with the help to the loyal troops contained them. The loyal troops blew up the janissaries barracks in Constantinople with artillery fires that resulted to 4,000 deaths. Captured janissaries were either exiled or executed. Following its defeat, the janissary corps was disbanded.  

Hagia Sophia, a Beautiful, Historic World Monument

Photo by Bigdaddy (from Wikimedia Commons)

Hagia Sophia or the Church of the Holy Wisdom in Greek, Sancta Sophia in Latin and Aya Sofya in Turkish is a historic monument of two great empires that shaped the course of world history- the Roman and Ottoman Empires. It also served as a house of worship of adherents of two of the world’s largest religions- Christianity and Islam. It was the largest cathedral in the world until 1520. Hagia Sophia is famous for its massive dome.

Hagia Sophia was built on the site where Emperor Constantine built a wooden church. The second church was built by his son Constantius and the Emperor Theodosius the Great. That church was burned. Under the supervision of Justinian I, the church was rebuilt in its present form around 532 and 537 AD.

Constantine was the first Roman Emperor who became Christian. He later promoted Christianity and moved his capital from Rome to Byzantium, an ancient Greek city. After he defeated his rivals, Constantine rebuilt Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople. It later became the capital of the eastern half of the Roman Empire which was also called the Byzantine Empire. Its heartland was Asia Minor and the Balkans.

Constantinople was situated on the southern coastal tip of the Balkan Peninsula along the Strait of Bosporus that separates the continents of Europe and Asia. The city’s strategic location provided the Byzantine Empire easy economic and military access to its territories across Asia and Southern Europe.

Justinian hired architects Isodore Militus and Arthemius of Tralles, both teachers of Geometry to design the church. He imported materials from neighboring places such as Ephesus, Athens, Rome and Delphi. The original dome of the church which Militus and Arthemius designed collapsed in an earthquake in 558. The replacement of 563 had to be repaired after a partial collapse in the 9^th and 14^th centuries.

In 1204 Hagia Sophia was attacked and sacked by the crusaders and looted of its properties. They arrested the Patriarch of Constantinople and replaced him with a Latin bishop. This event irreconcilably divided the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches which had long standing disputes that started from the great schism of 1054.

Photo by Andreas Wahra (from Wikimedia Commons)

Islamic text inside Hagia Sophia

In May 1453, Constantinople, the seat of the Byzantine Empire and the greatest city of Eastern Christendom at that time fell to the Muslim Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mehmet II. Amazed by the architectural beauty of the church, he converted Hagia Sophia into a mosque. Since then it remained a principal mosque for about 500 years. Hagia Sophia’s design then served as model of many mosques built around Constantinople and its neighboring areas.

The prominent feature of the cathedral is its dome which measures 230 ft (70 m) in width and 246 ft (75 m) in height. The dome is supported by pendentives which are rested on a square of 4 columns below. The 48 windows around the base of the dome reflect sunlight everywhere into the interior of the nave.

A mosaic depicting Jesus (center)

Mosaic of Virgin Mary and child Jesus. Photo by Griffendor (from Wikimedia Commons) 

The changes made during the Turkish era had markedly altered the outer appearance of Hagia Sophia so that it was indistinguishable that it was once a church. There are buttresses built to support the outer walls to ensure their endurance over the century. Four minarets were added by the corners of the church. The mihrab, the fountain, and mausoleum give the Hagia Sophia a mosque appearance. However, the inside of the edifice reveals the original purpose of its building. There are 6^th century church features such as mosaics painted on the walls depicting various Christian religious scenes. When Hagia Sophia was a mosque some mosaics were covered with plaster because of Muslim prohibition of figurative imagery. Further renovations of the church that was turned into mosque were made by Abdulmecid in 1847 who invited Swiss architects Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati to do the job.

After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and following the establishment of Turkey as a nation, Constantinople was renamed Istanbul in 1930, and President Kemal Attaturk had the Hagia Sophia secularized by turning it into a museum in 1934.

Hagia Sophia is a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. This priceless historic world monument is a UNESCO world cultural heritage site. Hagia Sophia is a major landmark and a tourist attraction of Turkey. All year round it is visited by tourists from different parts of the world.

Christianity and Islam, the Religions That Shape the Course of History

The belief of an almighty creator is an inherent nature of man. To cater to that belief, some people established religions that attracted large number of people. These religions even survive long after the death of their founders. By following a religion, a man has to suit his lifestyle in a way that his religion requires him. People’s collective adherence to a belief will somehow create a distinctive culture in a community. Indeed, religion has a profound impact on the social, political and cultural aspects of our lives. Since time immemorial many religions have been created and their struggle for expansion and dominance have resulted to the demise of empires, the change of the ethnic composition of a territory, the eruption of armed conflicts and the boom and decline of trade and commerce. Christianity and Islam are the two religions that in one way or the other affected the way many people live their lives in the past and present.

Jesus Christ and Christianity

The largest religion on earth was founded by a man named Jesus who was born in Bethlehem in Judea at around 6 AD during the reign of Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar. Little was known about his life in his younger age. He started his public ministry at the age of 30. With the help of his 12 disciples he preached to the people and healed the physically and spiritually sick. He told of the imminent coming of the Kingdom of God and of salvation. The Jewish high priests did not see Jesus’ activities in good light. For them he was a violator of the Jewish customs and traditions, and his claim to be the Messiah, the king of the Jews and the Son of God was highly blasphemous that called for a death penalty. The high priests plotted against him and put pressure on Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor, to have him executed. To appease the Jews and to prevent them from rioting, Pontius Pilate had Jesus crucified.

Contrary to what the Jewish high priests and Roman authorities expected, the death of Jesus did not end the movement that he founded.  His disciples and other followers who denied and abandoned him when he was tried and executed became fearless even to the point of death to vouch for him. Many of them claimed to have seen the resurrected Jesus before his ascension to heaven. For Jesus disciples and followers he was what he claimed to be.

Christianity is a religion that believes that spiritual salvation can only be obtained through Jesus. Christians also believe that Jesus is God’s promise Messiah whose life, death and resurrection fulfilled the prophecies of the Holy Bible. Different Christian denominations however are in constant disagreement as to the nature and or divinity of Jesus.

The early Christians were persecuted by the Jews and Romans and were falsely accused of having caused the disasters and other unfavorable things that happened in their community. However, despite the hardships and difficulties, they continued to spread the teachings of Christ.

Things started to change for the better for the Christians during the reign of Roman Emperor Constantine I. He allowed freedom of worship in the empire. It was said that he saw a vision of the cross against the sun at the Battle of the Melvian Bridge in 312 AD, and that the sign would give him victory. Constantine later defeated his rivals and became the sole Roman emperor. The conversion of Constantine to Christianity which he made as the official religion of the empire enabled it to spread like wildfire within its territories. The Romans’ acceptance of Christianity also effectively eradicated their old polytheistic pagan belief.

During his reign Constantine transferred his capital from Rome to Byzantium, which was later called Constantinople in 330 AD. His move divided the empire into east and west, and the east became known as the Byzantine Empire.

Muhammad and Islam

Muhammad was born in 570 AD in Mecca. He became an orphan in his early childhood and at age 25 he married a rich widow named Khadija. Becoming a merchant, he traveled to Syria where he came into contact with Jews and Christians. At age 40 Muhammad had a vision of the Angel Gabriel in a cave which ordered him to go forth and preach. At first Muhammad was so afraid of the vision that he even believed that it was a malevolent spirit. However, his wife convinced him that it was from God.

Muhammad was later convinced that he was indeed a messenger of God. He started to preach, but was able only to get few converts. His activities put him in a collision course with the religious leaders of Mecca, who plotted for his life. Muhammad and his followers fled to Medina in 622 AD.  His departure was referred by Muslims as Hegira. Muhammad established an Islamic community in Medina and gained religious as well as political prominence. He was victorious in the Battle of Badr and Uhud and captured Mecca with little bloodshed. He then cleansed the Kaaba of idols and converted the people there of his new religion.                                                                                                                                                                          

During his lifetime Muhammad was able to convert all of Arabia to his new religion which is called Islam or submission. In the centuries after his death in 632 AD Muslim armies spread the faith by conquest and conversion and forged an Arab empire that stretched from Spain to India.                                                                                                                                                         

Islam is a monotheistic religion that has some component of Judaism and Christianity. Muslims live by abiding with the five pillars of their faith. They are: shahada- professing that  Allah is the only God and Muhammad is His prophet; salat- praying 5 times a day; zakat- giving alms to the poor; sawm of Ramadan- fasting during the holy month and haj- the pilgrimage to Mecca. Islam’s holy book is called the Koran which Muslims believe as the literal words of Allah. Muslims governs their action based on the Sharia, a legal system that is adopted from the Koran.

Muslims and Christian Conflicts

After Muhammad’s death, his armies conquered the Zoroastrians in Persia and the Pagans of Arabia and the Jews and the Christians in Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and Palestine and in the process replacing the original dominant religions with Islam.

Having conquered much of the east, the Muslims trained their eyes on Europe. The Moors and the Arabs crossed into the Iberian Peninsula and occupied Spain. Advancing toward the north, they crossed the Pyrenees Mountains but were halted by Charles Martel who defeated them at the Battle of Tours in 732 AD and forced them to retreat back to Spain where they stayed and established their own dynasty. 

In Anatolia the Turks posed a grave threat to the Byzantine Empire. The Turks were nomadic people from central Asia who migrated to the Middle East and to Asia Minor. They were converted to Islam and championed the religion. Overtime, they became the power to be reckoned with in those areas. The Turks defeated the Byzantine forces at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 in which Emperor Romanus IV was captured by Turkish leader Alp Arslan. Their capture of Jerusalem made it difficult for Christian pilgrims to visit their holy places.

To eliminate the threat of the Turks on the Byzantine Empire and to free Palestine from them, Pope Urban organized the crusades to deal with the situation. The crusaders were composed of troops from different European nationalities. There were eight crusades that were launched from 1095 to 1270. But these military campaigns ended mostly in failures because of the mutual distrust among their leaders and the primary cause of the crusades was obscured by their selfish political and economic interests. The fourth crusade in 1204 was diverted to Constantinople and sacked the city and replaced the rulers there with Latin emperors, an action that alienated the Byzantine subjects from their Christian allies.

Victories and Defeats

The marriage of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile strengthened their Christians kingdoms in Spain.  Their combined forces defeated the last Moorish kingdom of Granada in 1492, and the Moors were expelled from Spain. At first the Muslims and the Jews who opted to stay in the country were treated fairly. But later, the inquisitions made many of them leave Spain.

The Ottoman Turks were able to take over large area of Asia Minor and conquered some countries in the Balkan Peninsula thereby surrounding the city of Constantinople the seat of the Byzantine Empire and Christendom’s second most important city after Rome. It was just a matter of time before the moribund Byzantine Empire with its capital city would fall to the Muslim Turks. Finally, on May 29, 1453, forces under Sultan Muhammad II laid siege to the city and successfully captured it. The fall of Constantinople marked the end of the Byzantine Empire which was supplanted by the Ottoman Empire which made Constantinople as its capital. The Ottomans wanted to take Europe for Islam. Led by Suleiman the Magnificent, they attempted to cross Western Europe through Vienna in 1529. However, they were driven back by the city’s defending troops.

Alternative Trade Routes to the Sea and the Age of Exploration

The control of important traditional trade routes by the Muslims made it difficult and expensive for goods such as spices from Asia to reach Europe. To get around the trade routes that were in the hands of the Arabs and Turks, Christian European kingdoms particularly Spain and Portugal looked to the sea to reach India where those goods were said to come from. Early explorers thought that the source of spices in the east could be reached through the sea by sailing westward, and around the Cape of Good Hope. Queen Isabella sponsored and financed the expedition of Christopher Columbus into the Indies in 1492. He was not able to reach India although he discovered a vast unexplored land that was later named the America.

Columbus exploration paved the way to the settlement of new lands that were at that time unknown to Europe. Other European powers such as Britain, France and Netherlands joined Spain and Portugal in the exploration of the New World. As a result, colonies were established which later became independent countries. New countries such as United States, Mexico, and Brazil among others were born. Their people are composed of indigenous inhabitants and settlers of divergent nationalities around the world.  Some countries such as the United States and Canada even became richer and greater than their former mother countries.

The discovery of new lands during the Age of Explorations enabled the European powers to extend their territories beyond the sea. It provided them economic benefit and enabled them to propagate their traditions, language, culture and religion in those lands. Somehow, the Age of Exploration has paved the way for the spread Christianity outside of Europe and the Middle East. Although many people believe in God and adhere to a religious belief, there are others who consider religion as absurdity. But it is an undeniable fact that religion is one of the factors that shaped the courses of events in history.

Related articles:

Spice Trade and the Discovery of America

El Cid (Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar)
Hagia Sophia, a Beautiful Historic World Monument