The Philippine Commonwealth, a Transition Government Leading to Philippine Independence

Pres. Manuel L. Quezon

Since it annexed the Philippines in 1898 as an unincorporated territory, the United States observed and acknowledged the fervent aspiration of the Filipinos to have a free and independent nation. To this end, the American congress enacted in 1932 the Hares-Hawes-Cuttings Act setting specific date of Philippine independence. US President Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill. The congress however overrode the president’s veto and the bill became an act. However, during that time a law pertaining to an unincorporated US territory had to first get the approval of the legislative body such as the senate in the case of the Philippines to become enforceable. Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon opposed the act because of its objectionable provisions such as the imposition of tariffs and quota on Philippine exports to the US and the reservation for American military bases in the Philippines.

Another law was crafted in the US to change the Hares-Hawes-Cuttings act. It was called the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934. Little changes to the provisions of the Hares-Hawes-Cuttings act made the Tydings-McDuffie Act acceptable to the Philippine senate.  It was then signed by the US president and became a law, and the prospect for an independent Philippines became a reality.                                      

The Tydings-McDuffie Act gave the Philippines a 10-year transition period before independence. And until then the Philippines was a commonwealth. Executive powers would be handed over by the American governor-general to the new Philippine president. Taking the place of the governor-general was the High Commissioner of the US to the Philippines who was adviser to the Philippine President on matters involving the two countries. In the interim period, the Philippines would have two elected resident commissioners to the US to act as non-voting Philippine representatives to the US congress.  

                        

Pres. Sergio Osmena

A constitutional convention in 1934 was called in Manila. The convention approved a new constitution on February 8, 1935, and was signed by US President Franklin Roosevelt on March 23, 1935. The constitution was ratified by a popular vote on May 14, 1935. The first Philippine Presidential Election was held on September 17, 1935. Manuel L. Quezon was elected as the first president for a one six-year term.  Winning the vice presidency was Sergio Osmeña.  At first the type of legislature under the constitution was unicameral, but it was later amended into a bicameral legislature. Foreign affairs and military matters were the responsibility of the United States and some legislation required the approval of the US president. In his presidency, Quezon’s advisers included General Douglas MacArthur who was a US High Commissioner. The latter had a rank of field marshal of the Philippines.                            

The attack of the Japanese of the American naval base in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on December 7, 1941 precipitated the entry of the United States into WW II. Japanese planes bombed Central Luzon in the Philippines on December 8, 1941. With the advance of the Japanese forces to Manila, General MacArthur declared it as an "open city" to spare it from destruction that might result in battles. American and Filipino forces surrendered to the Japanese in May 1942.                                                                                              

The progress made by the Japanese forces in the war, made Quezon and some of his top government officials move his seat of government to Corregidor. Later, Quezon with his top government officials joined Macarthur in del Monte, Bukidnon and from there they flew to Australia. Quezon proceeded to the United States where he set up his government-in- exile.  On August 1, 1944, Quezon died of tuberculosis at Saranac Lake, New York. Sergio Osmeña took his place as the commonwealth president in exile.

In the absence of the legitimate Philippine government, the Japanese occupation forces set up a government called the Second Republic of the Philippines with Jose P. Laurel as the appointed President. This government turned out to be unpopular because the Filipinos hated the Japanese occupation forces.

In 1943, the tide of battle changed in favor of the Americans and the allied forces in the Asia-Pacific theater of war. The Japanese forces suffered huge losses in terms of personnel and equipment and they were pushed every which way by the advancing allied forces. General Douglas MacArthur along with President Sergio Osmeña returned to the Philippines and arrived in Leyte on October 20, 1944.                                                                                                                                                      

The dropping of atomic bombs in the twin Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945 respectively made Japan surrender unconditionally to the allied forces led by the Americans on August 14,1945. That act formally ended the war in Asia and the Pacific.                                      

With the end of the war, the commonwealth government was restored, and a presidential election was held. The incumbent president Osmeña was the candidate of the Nacionalista Party. His opponent was Manuel Roxas of the Liberal Party. Osmeña refused to campaign believing that his 40 years of dedicated and honorable services to the country were enough to bring him to victory. In contrast, Roxas made a vigorous campaign for the presidency which eventually rewarded him of winning the election in 1946.   

                                                

Pres. Manuel Roxas

Despite the interruption of the war, the Philippines would meet its timetable for independence. The historic and memorable day came on July 4, 1946. The commonwealth had ended and a new era of an independent Philippines began. In the grand ceremony, Manuel Roxas declared the independence of the country and retook his oath as its president. The event was attended by top Philippine and American officials including some foreign dignitaries and was witnessed by about 400,000 spectators. The lowering of the American flag and the raising of the Philippine flag was accompanied with the clangs of church bells and the cheers of crowds. The waving of the Philippine flag in the air signified the Filipinos’ realized aspiration for independence and the hope for a better tomorrow.

The MacArthur Memorial Marker of Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

The MacArthur Memorial Marker is a landmark at Macabalan Wharf in Cagayan de Oro, Philippines which also serves as one of the attractions of the city. The Wharf where the memorial is located was occupied by the American forces during the Philippine-American War after they seized it from the Filipinos in 1900. It was also where General Douglas MacArthur, his family and his staff landed in Mindanao during WWII on his way to Australia.

Inside and in the middle of the concrete fenced area is the peaked cap shaped monument. Inside it is a star-shaped plaque which inscribes the biography of the general and other information pertinent to the memorial site. Outside the structure is a tablet inscribing the brief history of Macabalan wharf. The huge peaked cap is a replica of the service cap of General Douglas Macarthur, and it also serves as the roof of the open structure. It is supported by five columns on a round base. Each of the columns is superimposed with outward facing five five-pointed stars which represent the rank of MacArthur. In one of these columns inside the structure is the star shaped plaque that is placed parallel with one of the stars on a column.  Also inside the structure is a replica in a glass box of PT 41 boat that was boarded by MacArthur, his family and his staff on their way to Mindanao.     

The peaked cap shaped monument is in essence the main and the most conspicuous fixture of the place. It is made of fiber glass and steel bars and is 5 meters in height and 8 meters in diameter. In front of the cap’s crown is a US coat-of-arms, and on the visor and on the band are golden oak leaf embellishments.                                                                                     

Mc Arthur along with his family fled Corregidor Island off the shore of Manila in compliance with the orders of President Theodore Roosevelt of the United States. His departure saved him from possible capture by the Japanese forces who had earlier conquered Bataan where American and Filipino defenders converged to defend it from them.

The general and his companions landed at Macabalan Wharf on March 13, 1942 where American and Filipino soldiers were waiting for them. Amid threat of Japanese detection, he proceeded to Camp Phillips, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon and stayed at the Del Monte Clubhouse for several days. From the Diclum Airfield a B17 flying fortress flew MacArthur, his family and his staff to Australia on March 17, 1942 where he would direct the allied forces in its campaign against the Japanese.

The MacArthur Memorial Marker was inaugurated on March 13, 2008 or on the 66^th anniversary of General MacArthur’s landing at the Macabalan Wharf. Former Philippine President Fidel V. Ramos led the ceremony. He was joined by former Mayor Constantino Jaraula and other local officials. Others who were also present were representatives of the American embassy and the Joint US Advisory Group (JUSMAG) which was represented by Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Riker.                                                         

The construction of the MacArthur Memorial Marker is a fitting tribute to one of the most famous American generals who distinguished himself as an officer during the American occupation of the Philippines, during the Philippine Commonwealth era, and during the Second World War that resulted to the defeat of the common enemy of the Filipinos and the Americans.

The MacArthur Memorial Marker is visible at sea and in the air when one is approaching Cagayan de Oro either by ship or by plane. It is open for public viewing from 8 a.m. to 10 p.m. except on holidays.

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Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita and the Yamashita Treasure in the Philippines

Tomoyuki Yamashita was the commander of the Japanese Imperial Army in the Philippines when the tide of battle was overwhelmingly in favor of the Americans and their Filipino allies and the defeat of the Japanese forces was imminent. The name of General Yamashita is also associated with the gold and other treasures which were said to be hidden during the war by the Japanese Army under him in many locations in the Philippines.

The Tiger of Malaya

General Yamashita was born on November 8, 1885 in Shikoku, Japan. He finished his education and military training at the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1908  graduating number 18 in his class. Early in his career he was sent to different assignments one of which was in Shantung, China where the Japanese fought against the German Empire. He was also assigned as Japan’s ambassador to Germany.  Despite occasional falling outs with the powers that be, Yamashita still managed to get to the top of his career that culminated to his designation as the commander of the 25^th Army in 1941. As the commander, he launched a successful attack with the use of only 30,000 men against the combined British, Australian and Indian forces whose strength was 130,000. His outstanding victory had earned him the title as the “Tiger of Malaya”.

Yamashita gained popularity at home because of his achievements in the battlefield. But his detractors who did not want him to be in the limelight caused his transfer to Manchukuo, China in July 1942.

The Manila Massacre

As the war in the Pacific progressed, the war situation was very dim for the Japanese. General Masaharu Homma the Japanese commander in the Philippines was sent into forced retirement. General Yamashita took over the Fourteenth Area Army. He had under his command 262,000 troops which were divided into three groups. He led the largest group, the Shobo, which had 152,000 men whose area of responsibility was Northern Luzon. The smallest group, the Kembu, composed of 30,000 men under Tsukada would defend Bataan.  The third group, the Shimbu, with 80,000 men under Yokoyama would defend Manila and Southern Luzon.

Under relentless pressure from the American forces, Yamashita ordered a retreat to Sierra Madre and Cordilleras in Northern Luzon. He directed a group of troops to withdraw from Manila and leave only security forces of about 3,500 men so that the city would not be turned into a battlefield. Acting in disregard of Yamashita’s order, Imperial Japanese Navy Admiral Sanji Iwabuchi entered Manila with 16,000 sailors. He then merged his troops with the remaining army security forces.

Iwabuchi’s defiance of Yamashita orders made the city a battle ground and fierce street fighting took place from February 4 to March 3, 1945. Overpowered by the Americans, the Japanese vented their ire on the hapless civilian populace. Many civilians were massacred and many others were caught in the crossfire between the two warring sides. The resulting battles left as many as 100,000 civilians killed with huge devastation to properties that included commercial and historic buildings and other national treasures.

Trial and Execution of a Japanese General

The Japanese surrendered on September 3, 1945. A military tribunal tried General Tomoyuki Yamashita for his war crimes. The trial was not without flaws. All of the 5 prosecutors had no legal training and combat experience. Hearsay evidences and unnamed witnesses were admitted by the court. There were also evidences that the defense could not reasonably challenge in court, and the defense counsels were not given adequate time to prepare themselves for the trial. Yamashita was made to answer for atrocities that were done by troops under his subordinate commanders who made actions and decisions that were contrary to his instructions. Yamashita’s defense counsels contended that during the chaos of the war he could not possibly control many of his commanders’ acts in the field because of difficulty in communication. Nevertheless, Yamashita was sentenced to die by hanging. And appeal to the Philippine Supreme Court, to the US Supreme Court and to President Truman was made by his counsels to save his life or to give him leniency. However, the fate of the Japanese general was left to the discretion of General Douglas MacArthur who affirmed the decision of the military tribunal. On 23 February 1946 Yamashita was hanged in Los Banos, Laguna.

Yamashita Treasure

In the aftermath of the Second World War there were rumors about huge quantities of gold being hidden in caves, tunnel and underground complex in different parts of the Philippines. There were claims that Japanese troops under Yamashita brought huge quantities of gold from Singapore to the Philippines. From the Philippines they were to be brought to the Japanese home islands. However, the changing fortune of war and the sinking of Japanese ships by American submarines, warship and planes made the Japanese leave behind large quantities of their loot in the Philippines. It was said that the Japanese during the war looted the countries of Asia of gold, silver, diamonds, jewelries and other valuables. Those looted included banks, depositaries, temples, churches, mosques, museums, other commercial premises and private homes.

The Golden Buddha and the Bars of Gold

A well publicized incident in the Philippines that ended up to be settled in the US court in Hawaii seemed to confirm the existence of the “Yamashita Treasure”.

Rogelio Roxas was a treasure hunter from Baguio City. One day in 1971, he was approached by a person who claimed to be a son of a former Japanese soldier under Yamashita. The man had with him a map on the location of a Japanese hidden treasure. They were soon joined by an interpreter of the Japanese who had also knowledge of the location of the treasure. Using the map, they along with Roxas’ workers dug under the plot of state-owned Baguio General Hospital. After seven months of painstaking diggings, the hunters found bayonets, rifles, radios, Samurai swords and skeletal remains with Japanese army uniforms. Digging further, they found a concrete- enclosed chamber. Breaking through it, they found inside a three-foot Golden Buddha that weighed about a thousand pound. Several feet below it were 5 to 6 feet high stacks of boxes that filled an area of 6x6 feet. When Roxas opened one of the boxes, he saw 24 bars of gold in it. Because of the massive finds and their excessive weight, Roxas and his companions brought only with them the Golden Buddha and the box of gold that was opened. And then they resealed the chamber and the diggings before they left.

Roxas had the find examined and he discovered that the bars is a 20 karat solid gold. He later sold 7 of them and kept the rest in his house. He later tried to find a buyer for the golden Buddha so that he could finance the retrieval of the gold bars that were left behind in the chamber.  Two prospective buyers approached him and later confirmed that the Buddha was made of 20 karat solid gold.  Before it could be sold, armed men with search warrant signed by Judge Pio Marcos, an uncle of the then President Ferdinand Marcos, broke into Roxas’ house, beat him and seized the Buddha and the remaining gold bars. Roxas was later jailed. Eventually, the incident reached the Philippine media and became news. Political opponents of Marcos even made the incident an issue against him. The “Golden Buddha” which became the subject of controversy was placed in the court. However, Roxas claimed that the Buddha in display was not the one that he dug up, and that it was just a brass imitation of the original.

US Court Judgment against the Marcoses

Marcos declared Martial Law in 1972. He was deposed in the 1986 People Power Revolution and he fled to Hawaii. Rogelio Roxas organized the Golden Buddha Corporation to recover the treasure that was seized by Marcos. He filed a suit against Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos in 1988 for theft and human rights abuse in a US State Court in Hawaii. Although he died before the trial started, Roxas had issued the court a deposition testimony. The court affirmed the claim of Roxas and judgment was awarded to the Golden Buddha Corporation and the estate of Roxas amounting to 26 billion US dollars and with interest to 40.25 billion US dollars. The Hawaii Supreme Court however did not concur with the decision of the lower court stating that the chamber full of gold was too speculative and there was no evidence unveiled to determine gold quantity and quality. After more years of legal proceedings, the Golden Buddha Corp. obtained a final judgment and Imelda Marcos was made to pay only the Golden Buddha and the 17 gold bars in the amount of $13,275,848.37and $6,000,000 to the Roxas state for human rights abuse .The US Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals summarize the judgment as follows: “The Yamashita Treasure was found by Roxas, and stolen from Roxas by Marcos’men.”

“Yamashita treasure”, the urban legend

The claim of Rogelio Roxas about his gold find was real in the light of the decision of the American court.  If there were remaining boxes of gold in the chamber under the lot of the hospital then their money value could be very substantial .The Marcoses were suspected to have stolen billions of pesos from the Philippine coffers during their unlamented rule in the Philippines. Imelda Marcos said otherwise claiming that their wealth came from the Yamashita treasure.

Many people are fascinated with the story of the “Yamashita Treasure”.  Many people do not believe the story and dismiss it as a mere urban legend. Other people who believe in it invested effort and money to look for the elusive gold. There were few unconfirmed reports of finds, but most of those who ventured in the search ended up losing their shirts.  

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